The Hula Valley at sunrise. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

Today, the Hula Valley, north of the Sea of Galilee, is one of the most fertile agricultural regions in Israel. In the biblical period, however, it was better known as an important trade route connecting the commercial centers of Syria and northern Mesopotamia with the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt. Home to important biblical sites like Hazor, Dan, and Abel Beth Maacah, the Hula Valley is never mentioned by name in the Bible but it played an important role in the geopolitical history of the region.

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Exploring the Hula Valley

A fertile valley between the Golan Heights and the Upper Galilee, the Hula was home to several major Bronze Age and Iron Age cities. The valley also formed the northernmost extension of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. While today the region is filled with agricultural fields, historically the area was made up of extensive marshlands centered on the Hula Lake, which was fed by the Hasbani, Banias, and Dan rivers. The waters from the Hula Lake would then flow south through the marshlands into the Sea of Galilee. The Hula Lake has sometimes been identified as the Waters of Merom, where Joshua fought and defeated the Canaanite kings led by Jabin, the king of Hazor (Joshua 11). However, those “waters” are more often thought to refer to various springs located along the western side of the valley.

The six-chambered gate of Israelite Hazor. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

Although the Hula Valley has been inhabited since prehistory, its major settlements—Hazor, Dan (Canaanite Laish), and Abel Beth Maacah—were all established as Canaanite cities in the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BCE). During this period, Hazor was the largest fortified city in the southern Levant and one of the most important in the entire Near East, with cultural and economic ties to Syria and Mesopotamia. This status is reflected in the Book of Joshua, where Hazor is called “the head of all those kingdoms” (Joshua 11:10).

Courtesy BAS.

The Hula Valley came under Israelite control during the Iron Age (c. 1200–586 BCE), when it became a frequent battle ground between the Israelite and Aramean kingdoms, as witnessed in the famous Tel Dan Stele. The valley’s major cities were largely destroyed during the Assyrian conquest of the Northern Kingdom by Tiglath-Pileser III (c. 733/732 BCE). The area thrived again during the Roman period (c. 37 BCE–324 CE), when it formed part of the agricultural hinterland of Caesarea Philippi/Panias.

View of the agricultural fields of the Hula Valley from Tel Hazor. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

With a warm Mediterranean climate and lots of water, the valley is exceedingly rich in flora and fauna, and today it is home to a large nature reserve. The valley is an important stop on the migratory path of birds traveling between Europe and Africa. As such, it is often filled with hundreds of bird species, including pelicans, cranes, herons, ibises, and many more. It is also home to many mammal species, including boars, jackals, otters, and lynx. The Hula Lake once covered nearly 5 square miles and was one of the largest bodies of fresh water in the region. However, following systematic attempts in the 20th century to drain the surrounding marshland in order to combat malaria, today the lake is only around 0.5 square miles.

This article first appeared in Bible History Daily on March 3, 2025.

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Viewing the Negev through an archway at Avdat in the central Negev. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

Although not as central to the biblical narrative as areas like the Galilee or the Judean Highlands, the Negev Desert was nevertheless a region of great importance in the history of ancient Israel, Judah, and the Levant. Home to the biblical patriarchs, and a stronghold for the kingdom of Judah, the Negev Desert boasts a rich history related to agriculture, mining, and trade.

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A Desert of Biblical Proportions

Encompassing over half of modern Israel, the Negev is an arid and semi-arid rocky desert between central Israel and the Gulf of Aqaba. Moving from the north to the south, the climate becomes progressively dryer, with its northern reaches enjoying a Mediterranean climate, while its eastern and southern regions receive less than 4 inches of rain per year.

The Negev terrain near Sde Boker, central Negev. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The biblical Negev, however, only encompassed the northern parts of the region and included sites like Arad, Beer-Sheva, and probably Kadesh-Barnea. Beer-Sheva was the region’s chief city in biblical times and was home to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It was there that Abraham formed a covenant with King Abimelech (Genesis 21:32) and where both Isaac and Jacob spoke to God (Genesis 26:23–24; 46:1–4). Later, it was into the Negev Desert that Moses sent the 12 spies. During the time of the Judahite monarchy (tenth–sixth centuries BCE), the Negev boasted numerous defensive outposts to guard against encroaching enemies from Moab and Edom. The Negev was also home to significant mining operations, including the mines of Timna, which are some of the oldest copper mines in the world.

Lonely acacia tree in a small wadi in the Timna Valley. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

A little smaller than the state of Connecticut, the Negev consists of low, rocky mountains interrupted by seasonal streambeds (wadis) and deep craters. While the northern Negev includes some shrubland, the majority of the Negev is speckled by lonely acacia and pistachio trees, as well as the occasional shrub.

Large male Ibex resting in the Timna Valley. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

Wandering the desert are gazelles, ibexes, oryxes, hyenas, wolves, jackals, and even hedgehogs. In antiquity, the region was also home to a large number of Arabian and Asiatic animals, including ostriches, lions, and cheetahs. Until only a few years ago, leopards could still be found in the region.

Byzantine church at the site of Avdat in the central Negev. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The Negev has historically been an important trade route from the Mediterranean to the Arabian Peninsula and the copper mines in the southern Negev and Wadi Aravah. The region flourished at various times due to these trade routes, with the Nabatean kingdom of Petra especially developing many sites within the region. The area continued to flourish in the Roman, Byzantine, and early Islamic periods (c. 37 BCE–1099 CE), as new agricultural and water harvesting methods were developed, allowing larger populations to sustain themselves in the desert’s harsh conditions. Since the medieval period, the area has continued to be inhabited and developed to varying levels.

Map of the Negev Desert. BAS.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on February 3, 2025.

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Looking out over the Elah Valley from on top of Tel Azekah. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The Shephelah, also known as the Judean Foothills, is one of many geographic regions mentioned in the Bible. However, for those who have never visited the Holy Land, it is a place that can be hard to picture. So, what is the Shephelah?

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Map of the Holy Land during the Iron Age, with the Shephelah marked in orange. Courtesy BAS

The Shephelah is a transition zone between the Judean Highlands in the east—the area of Jerusalem and Hebron—and the coastal plain in the west. Consisting of gently rolling hills, the fertile Shephelah includes important biblical cities and towns like Lachish, Beth Shemesh, Azekah, and Gezer. Within the Shephelah, there are also other important biblical places, like the Elah Valley, where David fought Goliath. Indeed, the entire area is divided by a series of valleys with seasonal streams.

With so many biblical sites, it would be easy to mistake the Shephelah for a large area, but in fact, it is only a small strip of land, roughly 35 miles long and 8 miles wide. Of the southern Levant’s main geographic zones, the Shephelah is one of the smallest. This did not stop it, however, from playing a critical role in the Bible, especially during the period of the Kingdom of Judah (c. 1000–586 BCE). From the establishment of David’s kingdom until the conquest of the region by the Assyrians and then Babylonians, the Shephelah was the border between the Kingdom of Judah and the Philistine city-states of the coastal plain. Many of the Shephelah’s biblical sites are located along the valleys through which people would have passed from the coastal plain to the Judean Highlands. Settling along these valleys served the dual purpose of giving the inhabitants access to fertile agricultural land, as well as the ability to control travel between regions. This was especially important for the defense of the young Judahite kingdom.

A bell cave, part of an underground cave network at the site of Maresha in the lower Shephelah. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

According to both the biblical account and various historical reconstructions, the Shephelah was also one of the first regions into which David’s kingdom expanded in the early tenth century BCE. Beginning in Hebron, where David reigned for several years, the kingdom soon grew to encompass Jerusalem and the eastern Shephelah, before expanding again to incorporate the northern Negev and other major cities in the Shephelah, including Lachish.

The ruins of the Byzantine church of Saint Anne in the lower Shephelah. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The Shephelah is largely covered by grasses, shrubs, and low-lying trees, and it mostly consists of a Mediterranean climate. Although containing many fertile valleys, the area is too hilly for large-scale industrial agriculture, but today it still features many smaller fields as well as some of Israel’s most popular vineyards. It is also an ideal place for sheep herding.

Herd of sheep at Maresha in the lower Shephelah. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The Valley of Elah

The lush Elah Valley is one of the best known and archaeologically rich valleys of the Shephelah. Named after the terebinth tree, the Elah is an exceptionally fertile region that was part of the breadbasket of ancient Judah. Along the valley’s edges are several important archaeological sites, including Azekah, Khirbet Qeiyafa, Tel Socoh, and Tel Adullam.

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The nearly 4-mile-long valley, which extends in a broad arc from east to west, was an important corridor and borderland in antiquity. Serving as the backdrop to the story of David and Goliath (1 Samuel 17), the valley forms a natural border between the territories of Philistia and Judah, separating the cities of the coastal plain from those of the hill country. According to the Bible, the Elah Valley was where the Philistine and Israelite armies made camp, and it was from the valley’s streambeds that David took his sling stones to slay the Philistine giant.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on January 27, 2025.

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Painting of the Great Sphinx of Giza and pyramids from 1839. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible.

The Great Sphinx of Giza is a monolithic structure and one of the ancient world’s most iconic monuments, alongside the Pyramids of Giza. However, unlike the pyramids—which were built using millions of 2-ton limestone blocks—the construction of the sphinx may have had a little help from mother nature. While the recognizable form of the sphinx and especially its face is believed to have been modeled on Pharaoh Khafre (r. 2558−2532 BCE), shortly after the construction of that pharaoh’s pyramid, the structure may not be completely manmade. Indeed, a new study published in Physical Review Fluids suggests the sphinx began its life as a naturally occurring landform.

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The study, which recreated natural erosion patterns on model clay mounds, demonstrated that under normal conditions it is possible for erosion to create a structure roughly resembling the figure of a reclining lion. This is not the first time such a theory has been put forward, with the Egyptian geologist Farouk el-Baz first suggesting it in 1981. According to el-Baz, the ancient Egyptians likely carved the sphinx out of a yardang, a naturally occurring bedrock ridge sculpted by wind. Several yardangs are known today that bear similar lion-like shapes. This natural feature would have been the perfect base to carve out the main features of the sphinx, with other features created using limestone blocks. The new study, performed by researchers at New York University, lends additional credence to el-Baz’s original theory.

Today, the Great Sphinx of Giza measures 240 feet long and 66 feet tall. With the body of a lion and the face of a human, the sphinx took its name—already mentioned in antiquity—from the Greek mythological beast. It is thought that the face of the sphinx may be that of Pharaoh Khafre, whose temple complex was partially dismantled to allow for the building of the sphinx’s associated temple.

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