The Hula Valley at sunrise. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

Today, the Hula Valley, north of the Sea of Galilee, is one of the most fertile agricultural regions in Israel. In the biblical period, however, it was better known as an important trade route connecting the commercial centers of Syria and northern Mesopotamia with the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt. Home to important biblical sites like Hazor, Dan, and Abel Beth Maacah, the Hula Valley is never mentioned by name in the Bible but it played an important role in the geopolitical history of the region.

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Exploring the Hula Valley

A fertile valley between the Golan Heights and the Upper Galilee, the Hula was home to several major Bronze Age and Iron Age cities. The valley also formed the northernmost extension of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. While today the region is filled with agricultural fields, historically the area was made up of extensive marshlands centered on the Hula Lake, which was fed by the Hasbani, Banias, and Dan rivers. The waters from the Hula Lake would then flow south through the marshlands into the Sea of Galilee. The Hula Lake has sometimes been identified as the Waters of Merom, where Joshua fought and defeated the Canaanite kings led by Jabin, the king of Hazor (Joshua 11). However, those “waters” are more often thought to refer to various springs located along the western side of the valley.

The six-chambered gate of Israelite Hazor. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

Although the Hula Valley has been inhabited since prehistory, its major settlements—Hazor, Dan (Canaanite Laish), and Abel Beth Maacah—were all established as Canaanite cities in the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BCE). During this period, Hazor was the largest fortified city in the southern Levant and one of the most important in the entire Near East, with cultural and economic ties to Syria and Mesopotamia. This status is reflected in the Book of Joshua, where Hazor is called “the head of all those kingdoms” (Joshua 11:10).

Courtesy BAS.

The Hula Valley came under Israelite control during the Iron Age (c. 1200–586 BCE), when it became a frequent battle ground between the Israelite and Aramean kingdoms, as witnessed in the famous Tel Dan Stele. The valley’s major cities were largely destroyed during the Assyrian conquest of the Northern Kingdom by Tiglath-Pileser III (c. 733/732 BCE). The area thrived again during the Roman period (c. 37 BCE–324 CE), when it formed part of the agricultural hinterland of Caesarea Philippi/Panias.

View of the agricultural fields of the Hula Valley from Tel Hazor. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

With a warm Mediterranean climate and lots of water, the valley is exceedingly rich in flora and fauna, and today it is home to a large nature reserve. The valley is an important stop on the migratory path of birds traveling between Europe and Africa. As such, it is often filled with hundreds of bird species, including pelicans, cranes, herons, ibises, and many more. It is also home to many mammal species, including boars, jackals, otters, and lynx. The Hula Lake once covered nearly 5 square miles and was one of the largest bodies of fresh water in the region. However, following systematic attempts in the 20th century to drain the surrounding marshland in order to combat malaria, today the lake is only around 0.5 square miles.

This article first appeared in Bible History Daily on March 3, 2025.

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Viewing the Negev through an archway at Avdat in the central Negev. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

Although not as central to the biblical narrative as areas like the Galilee or the Judean Highlands, the Negev Desert was nevertheless a region of great importance in the history of ancient Israel, Judah, and the Levant. Home to the biblical patriarchs, and a stronghold for the kingdom of Judah, the Negev Desert boasts a rich history related to agriculture, mining, and trade.

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A Desert of Biblical Proportions

Encompassing over half of modern Israel, the Negev is an arid and semi-arid rocky desert between central Israel and the Gulf of Aqaba. Moving from the north to the south, the climate becomes progressively dryer, with its northern reaches enjoying a Mediterranean climate, while its eastern and southern regions receive less than 4 inches of rain per year.

The Negev terrain near Sde Boker, central Negev. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The biblical Negev, however, only encompassed the northern parts of the region and included sites like Arad, Beer-Sheva, and probably Kadesh-Barnea. Beer-Sheva was the region’s chief city in biblical times and was home to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It was there that Abraham formed a covenant with King Abimelech (Genesis 21:32) and where both Isaac and Jacob spoke to God (Genesis 26:23–24; 46:1–4). Later, it was into the Negev Desert that Moses sent the 12 spies. During the time of the Judahite monarchy (tenth–sixth centuries BCE), the Negev boasted numerous defensive outposts to guard against encroaching enemies from Moab and Edom. The Negev was also home to significant mining operations, including the mines of Timna, which are some of the oldest copper mines in the world.

Lonely acacia tree in a small wadi in the Timna Valley. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

A little smaller than the state of Connecticut, the Negev consists of low, rocky mountains interrupted by seasonal streambeds (wadis) and deep craters. While the northern Negev includes some shrubland, the majority of the Negev is speckled by lonely acacia and pistachio trees, as well as the occasional shrub.

Large male Ibex resting in the Timna Valley. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

Wandering the desert are gazelles, ibexes, oryxes, hyenas, wolves, jackals, and even hedgehogs. In antiquity, the region was also home to a large number of Arabian and Asiatic animals, including ostriches, lions, and cheetahs. Until only a few years ago, leopards could still be found in the region.

Byzantine church at the site of Avdat in the central Negev. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The Negev has historically been an important trade route from the Mediterranean to the Arabian Peninsula and the copper mines in the southern Negev and Wadi Aravah. The region flourished at various times due to these trade routes, with the Nabatean kingdom of Petra especially developing many sites within the region. The area continued to flourish in the Roman, Byzantine, and early Islamic periods (c. 37 BCE–1099 CE), as new agricultural and water harvesting methods were developed, allowing larger populations to sustain themselves in the desert’s harsh conditions. Since the medieval period, the area has continued to be inhabited and developed to varying levels.

Map of the Negev Desert. BAS.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on February 3, 2025.

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Looking out over the Elah Valley from on top of Tel Azekah. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The Shephelah, also known as the Judean Foothills, is one of many geographic regions mentioned in the Bible. However, for those who have never visited the Holy Land, it is a place that can be hard to picture. So, what is the Shephelah?

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Map of the Holy Land during the Iron Age, with the Shephelah marked in orange. Courtesy BAS

The Shephelah is a transition zone between the Judean Highlands in the east—the area of Jerusalem and Hebron—and the coastal plain in the west. Consisting of gently rolling hills, the fertile Shephelah includes important biblical cities and towns like Lachish, Beth Shemesh, Azekah, and Gezer. Within the Shephelah, there are also other important biblical places, like the Elah Valley, where David fought Goliath. Indeed, the entire area is divided by a series of valleys with seasonal streams.

With so many biblical sites, it would be easy to mistake the Shephelah for a large area, but in fact, it is only a small strip of land, roughly 35 miles long and 8 miles wide. Of the southern Levant’s main geographic zones, the Shephelah is one of the smallest. This did not stop it, however, from playing a critical role in the Bible, especially during the period of the Kingdom of Judah (c. 1000–586 BCE). From the establishment of David’s kingdom until the conquest of the region by the Assyrians and then Babylonians, the Shephelah was the border between the Kingdom of Judah and the Philistine city-states of the coastal plain. Many of the Shephelah’s biblical sites are located along the valleys through which people would have passed from the coastal plain to the Judean Highlands. Settling along these valleys served the dual purpose of giving the inhabitants access to fertile agricultural land, as well as the ability to control travel between regions. This was especially important for the defense of the young Judahite kingdom.

A bell cave, part of an underground cave network at the site of Maresha in the lower Shephelah. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

According to both the biblical account and various historical reconstructions, the Shephelah was also one of the first regions into which David’s kingdom expanded in the early tenth century BCE. Beginning in Hebron, where David reigned for several years, the kingdom soon grew to encompass Jerusalem and the eastern Shephelah, before expanding again to incorporate the northern Negev and other major cities in the Shephelah, including Lachish.

The ruins of the Byzantine church of Saint Anne in the lower Shephelah. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The Shephelah is largely covered by grasses, shrubs, and low-lying trees, and it mostly consists of a Mediterranean climate. Although containing many fertile valleys, the area is too hilly for large-scale industrial agriculture, but today it still features many smaller fields as well as some of Israel’s most popular vineyards. It is also an ideal place for sheep herding.

Herd of sheep at Maresha in the lower Shephelah. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The Valley of Elah

The lush Elah Valley is one of the best known and archaeologically rich valleys of the Shephelah. Named after the terebinth tree, the Elah is an exceptionally fertile region that was part of the breadbasket of ancient Judah. Along the valley’s edges are several important archaeological sites, including Azekah, Khirbet Qeiyafa, Tel Socoh, and Tel Adullam.

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The nearly 4-mile-long valley, which extends in a broad arc from east to west, was an important corridor and borderland in antiquity. Serving as the backdrop to the story of David and Goliath (1 Samuel 17), the valley forms a natural border between the territories of Philistia and Judah, separating the cities of the coastal plain from those of the hill country. According to the Bible, the Elah Valley was where the Philistine and Israelite armies made camp, and it was from the valley’s streambeds that David took his sling stones to slay the Philistine giant.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on January 27, 2025.

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Remains of the Byzantine monastery. Courtesy Emil Aladjam, IAA.

Archaeologists with the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) uncovered the remains of an exquisite Byzantine monastery and a nearby town during development works to expand the city of Kiryat Gat in southern Israel. The monastery, dating to the end of the Byzantine period (fifth–sixth centuries CE), continues to shed light on the region’s early Christian communities.

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Byzantine Christianity

Mosaic floor of the monastery. Courtesy Emil Aladjem, IAA.

One of the most impressive finds within the Byzantine monastery is its marvelous mosaic floor, described by the IAA’s head conservator, Mark Avrahami, as “one of the most unique ever found in Israel.” The mosaic features crosses, lions, doves, flowers, an amphora, and geometric designs. In the center of the mosaic is a Greek inscription quoting Deuteronomy 28:6: “Blessed are you when you come in, and blessed are you when you go out.” The mosaic’s geometric patterns incorporate very small mosaic stones, which serve to highlight the cross-shaped decorations.

In addition to the monastery, the IAA uncovered the remains of at least nine other buildings, including an elaborate winepress and a large warehouse. It is estimated that these finds belonged to a settlement that thrived in the area for around 600 years, from the first century CE until the end of the Byzantine period. While the Roman period (c. 37 BCE–324 CE) finds display rich quality and variety, the Byzantine finds are more numerous and impressive, including the monastery and winepress.

The winepress features a mosaic floor of blue and white stones in its fermentation rooms and collection vat. The collection vat also retains remnants of red paint. According to the IAA, the construction of the winepress likely involved significant resources, time, and effort.

The large wine press discovered near Kiryat Gat. Courtesy Emil Aladjem, IAA.

Other finds included a large amount of imported pottery, coins, marble pieces, and metal and glass vessels. There is also evidence of pottery production, such as ceramic detritus, garbage pits, flawed or misshapen “wasters,” and even a number of unique vessels. All of this attests to the rich and significant community that lived at the site.

According to the IAA’s excavation directors, Shira Lifshitz and Maayan Margulis, “The early settlement is on a central road junction connecting the mountain region to the coastal plain. It apparently served the area’s smaller settlements as well as travelers passing by. This is the largest and most significant Roman and Byzantine period site uncovered in this area.”

A toy statue of a horse from the Byzantine period. Courtesy Shira Lipshitz, IAA.

This is not the first early Christian building discovered in the area, however. Around 15 miles to the south, the IAA uncovered a small Byzantine church connected to a rich farming estate. Like the monastery, that church also went out of use at the end of the Byzantine period but was replaced by a mosque shortly after the Islamic conquest.

The finds in Kiryat Gat were made during a salvage excavation, in anticipation of a northern expansion of the town. Although some of the finds will be covered over to make way for the expansion, other finds, including the mosaic, will be removed, conserved, and put on display in the city for residents to learn more about the area’s rich history.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on January 10, 2025.

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Assyrian cylinder seal from Horvat Tevet. Courtesy Omer Peleg et al.

What can a burial tell us about Assyrian administrative control over ancient Israel? Maybe a lot more than we think. Publishing in the journal Tel Aviv, archaeologists excavating at the site of Horvat Tevet in the Jezreel Valley suggest that a single grave may hold a major clue to understanding Assyrian administrative policy in the region they conquered from the Northern Kingdom of Israel in the seventh century BCE.

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Cremating a Clue

Horvat Tevet is about 10 miles northeast of the important city of Megiddo, which, during the period of Assyrian rule, was the capital of the imperial province of Megiddu. Across numerous periods, including under the Egyptians and the northern Israelite kingdom, Horvat Tevet served as an administrative hub and royal estate. However, like many sites in the strategically important Jezreel Valley, Horvat Tevet shrank in size and importance under the Assyrians, leading many archaeologists to suggest that the Assyrians neglected the region. That conclusion might now be challenged by an intriguing grave discovered at the site.

Plan and section drawing prepared by Elena Ilana Delerzon, IAA. Courtesy of Karen Covello-Paran and Omer Sergi, the Ḥorvat Tevet Expedition.

For those unfamiliar with the burial customs of the time, the grave at Horvat Tevet seems rather mundane. But when compared to other ancient Levantine burials, it is obvious that something is amiss. The burial consists of two separate burial pits, one of which is a cremation burial, a rarity in the Iron Age Levant (c. 1200–586 BCE). But even the more typical inhumation burial found alongside it was unusual, as the body was found in the fetal rather than supine position. The uniqueness does not stop there, however.

The Horvat Tevet cremains were spread across three separate urns, with a large quantity of grave goods found both inside and outside of the vessels. These included faience amulets, an alabastron, a stone weight, a cylinder seal, a glazed Assyrian bottle, various metal objects, ceramics, and nearly 100 beads. Although some of these objects were made locally, many were imported, largely from Philistia and Phoenicia but also Egypt and even Assyria.

While several features of the Horvat Tevet burial are unusual, the burial site itself is equally puzzling, at least until compared with burials known from Assyria. Indeed, many Assyrian cities and strongholds feature strikingly similar graves. Clearly, then, the grave at Horvat Tevet is connected to Assyrian burial practices, while the wealth of objects indicates the deceased came from among the higher echelons of local society.

How, then, does this relate to Assyria’s administration of the former Northern Kingdom? Although Megiddo was an Assyrian provincial capital, Horvat Tevet seems to have been less important, yet the grave is both rich and distinctly Assyrian. According to archaeologists, such a burial would have served to connect the deceased to the land around them. They suggest the individual may have lived at Megiddo, with their body transported to Horvat Tevet for burial. This connection, they argue, may help explain the apparent lack of development in the Jezreel Valley. Across other areas of Assyrian control, the Assyrians dedicated certain areas as royal agricultural territory, to be managed by local elites on behalf of the imperial administration. Under this assumption, the lack of development in the Jezreel did not reflect a lack of administrative oversight, but rather was an expression of Assyrian agricultural policy.

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A man carrying a goat, part of a banquet scene. Drawn after Pola et al. Citation 2016, Fig. 54 by Ruhama Bonfil, The Institute of Archaeology, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

The twin sites of Tall adh-Dhahab, located just across the Jordan River from the ancient cities of Samaria and Shechem, are often identified as biblical Mahanaim and Panuel. Although mentioned several times in the Hebrew Bible, not much is known about either site. A new proposal in the journal Tel Aviv, however, suggests that a group of previously published carved ashlar blocks uncovered during earlier German excavations may point to Mahanaim being the site of an ancient Israelite palace.

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Palatial Building Blocks

At its height in the ninth century BCE, the Northern Kingdom of Israel stretched east across the Jordan River to the region of Gilead, in modern northwestern Jordan. It is in this region, along the biblical Jabbok River, that the sites of Tall adh-Dhahab are located. Both contain evidence of having been occupied during the Iron Age (c. 1200–586 BCE) and the Hellenistic period (c. 332–37 BCE). Some of the most interesting objects from the sites, however, are a group of ashlar stones dated to the Iron Age but incorporated into the later Hellenistic structures.

A segment of a garment probably of a participant in a banquet. Drawn after Pola et al. Citation 2016, Fig. 60 by Ruhama Bonfil, The Institute of Archaeology, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Several of the ashlar blocks include clear incisions: carved images of lyre players, horses, lions, palm trees, and even a man carrying a goat. These blocks likely once belonged to larger figurative depictions, possibly of feasts and hunting scenes. While many of these depictions are similar to artistic motifs used throughout the ancient Near East, especially Syro-Anatolia, the recent study proposes interpreting several of the images as signs of Israelite control.

According to the paper, a number of the ashlar blocks bear images with clear thematic parallels in the iconography of Kuntillet ‘Ajrud, the well-known Iron Age waystation found in northeastern Sinai. Four blocks specifically stand out: those depicting lyre players, horses, lions, and palm trees. All four themes have clear parallels in the iconography of Kuntillet ‘Ajrud, where they were discovered painted on pottery or decorating walls. Given that Kuntillet ‘Ajrud is often considered an Israelite site, these common iconographic themes could indicate a shared socio-political context, which in turn may help date the sites at Tall adh-Dhahab to about the same time as Kuntillet ‘Ajrud, which most scholars believe was first built during the reign of Jeroboam II (c. 793–753 BCE).

This brings up an interesting question: Where are the ashlars from? With some weighing as much as 440 pounds, it is likely that these large sandstone blocks were originally crafted for an administrative center or palace. After all, during the Bronze and Iron Ages, it was not at all unusual to have depictions of animals and feasts adorning palace walls. While no such palace has been excavated in the area, the article’s authors suggest the ashlars may be evidence that one once existed. This proposal, in turn, could help explain the biblical text, as Mahanaim plays an important role in a number of key events. Notable among these is the crowning and reign of Ish-Bosheth (2 Samuel 2:8–9), David’s journey to Mahanaim while fleeing from Absalom (2 Samuel 17:22–29), and the reference to Mahanaim as the center of a Solomonic administrative district (1 Kings 4:14). If there was a palace at Mahanaim, it would help explain the site’s regional importance and its role in how the biblical writers remembered these events.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on December 6, 2024

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The Egyptian scarab. Courtesy Emil Aladjem, IAA.

While walking with her family at Tel Qana near Tel Aviv, a young girl made a fantastic find: a small stone in the shape of a dung beetle with a carving of two scorpions on the bottom. After the family brought it to an archaeologist with the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), it was determined that the object was an Egyptian scarab dating to around 1500 BCE, during the New Kingdom period.

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Finding a Scarab

“I was looking down at the ground to find porcupine needles and smooth pebbles,” said 12-year-old Dafna Filshteiner. “I picked up an interesting stone. I showed it to my mother, and she said it was just an ordinary stone or a bead. But then I saw a decoration and stubbornly insisted it was more than that, so we searched on the internet. There, we identified more photos of stones similar to what we had found. We realized that it was something special and immediately called the [IAA].”

While scarabs—often carved in the shape of dung beetles and frequently used as seals—originated in Egypt, they also became popular in the southern Levant with the spread of Egyptian influence. Many scarabs have been found in Israel, some having been imported from Egypt while others were crafted locally to mimic Egyptian styles. “The scarab is indeed a distinct Egyptian characteristic,” said Yitzhak Paz, a Bronze Age expert at the IAA. “Their wide distribution also reached far beyond Egypt’s borders,” however. “It may have been dropped by an important and authoritative figure passing through the area, or it may have been deliberately buried. Since the find was discovered on the surface, it is difficult to know its exact context.”

The bottom of the scarab depicts two scorpions, positioned head to tail. “The scorpion symbol represented the Egyptian goddess Serket, who was considered responsible, among other things, for protecting pregnant mothers,” said Paz. “Another decoration on the amulet is the nefer symbol, which in Egyptian means ‘good’ or ‘chosen.’ There is also another symbol which looks like a royal staff.”

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Depiction of captured “Sea Peoples,” some of whom are identified with the early Philistines, from the temple of Medinet Habu in Egypt. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible, Joshua.

The traditional view of the biblical Philistines sees them as an organized and powerful force that moved in and conquered part of the southern Levant during the transition between the Late Bronze and early Iron Ages (13th–11th centuries BCE). More than three decades of excavations at Tell es-Safi/Gath, however, suggest that the Philistines’ entrance into Canaan was a much more complex process.

In his article “Gath of the Philistines: A New View of Ancient Israel’s Archenemy,” published in the Fall 2024 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review, archaeologist Aren Maier of Bar-Ilan University in Israel explores these new revelations about the Philistines and what they teach us about ancient Israel’s infamous enemy.

Complicated Entrances

According to Maeir, the group we think of today as the Philistines was far from a single people at the start. Instead, they were comprised of groups from all over the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean, including people from Anatolia and Canaan. The same can be said for their material culture and religious life. However, perhaps the most surprising discovery from Tell es-Safi—and many other Philistine cities—is the lack of destruction layers that can be clearly associated with the arrival of the Philistines. Instead, the Philistines appear to have integrated into the local population, continuing, with only slight variations, many of the cultural, linguistic, and religious traits of the Bronze Age Canaanites.

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Indeed, while modern readers often think of ancient migration as being inherently destructive and violent, this was not always the case. Another famous example from the ancient Near East of a more complex migration is the Amorites.

A semi-nomadic group closely related to the Canaanites, the Amorites moved into Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and Syria) in the second half of the third millennium BCE. At various times, this migration put them in conflict or alliance with the earlier inhabitants of the region, the Sumerians and Akkadians. In fact, in some cases, Mesopotamian rulers even constructed massive walls to keep the Amorites at bay. One such wall, constructed by King Shu-Sin (r. 2037–2028 BCE), stretched 170 miles between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

Despite this, the Amorites eventually spread throughout Mesopotamia, and while they did bring some of their own customs with them, they largely integrated into the local population, worshiping the gods of the Sumerians and Akkadians and even adopting the Akkadian language. Following the decline of Sumerian and Akkadian power and the destruction of Ur at the hands of the neighboring Elamites (from southwestern Persia), it was the Amorites who rose to power, ruling Mesopotamia for the next 500 years. This era, known as the Isin-Larsa period (c. 2004–1763 BCE) and Old Babylonian Period (c. 1894–1595 BCE), saw some of the most characteristic features of Mesopotamian history, including the writing of great literary works such as the Epic of Gilgamesh. Perhaps the most famous Amorite king was Hammurabi, king of Babylon. However, the period of Amorite rule was also notable for its continuation of Sumerian and Akkadian traditions and customs.

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Subscribers: Read the full article, “Gath of the Philistines: A New View of Ancient Israel’s Archenemy,” by Aren Maeir, in the Fall 2024 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

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This article was first published in Bible History Daily on September 11, 2024.

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Relief of chariot horses from the palace of Ashurbanipal. Photo Companion to the Bible, 2 Kings.

Early eighth-century BCE Megiddo is famous for two massive stable complexes, thought by early excavators to be the stables of Solomon. Covering a large portion of the city, these stables were central to daily life at Megiddo and reflect the city’s intensive interest in breeding and keeping horses. In Near Eastern Archaeology, archaeologist Israel Finkelstein sets out to explain the role these stables played in both the city and the powerful Northern Kingdom of Israel.

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Horses for Sale

Located within the strategic Jezreel Valley, Megiddo played an important role in the northern Israelite kingdom. However, the city was largely destroyed during the campaign of Hazael, king of Aram-Damascus, in the mid-ninth century BCE. When it was rebuilt a few decades later, the city was entirely different in size and character. The eighth-century city featured a massive inset-offset wall, a new city layout, and two massive complexes that, together, occupied a significant portion of the city. The rebuilt city also sprang up at a time when the northern kingdom was once again asserting its authority. As an ally and vassal of the mighty Assyrian Empire, Israel was beginning to expand and develop economically, becoming a powerhouse in the southern Levant.

The purpose of the two massive complexes has long been a subject of debate; however, recent work has connected these complexes with similar contemporary buildings known to have been horse stables. One such stable, discovered at Nabi Yunus in Iraq, even included inscriptions from the Assyrian king Sennacherib II that explicitly identified the complex as a construction for horses. So, why was one of the most strategically important cities in ancient Israel seemingly dedicated to the singular purpose of stabling horses? According to Israel Finkelstein, director of the current Megiddo excavations, the answer is trade.

Reconstruction of the Southern Stables at Megiddo. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible, 2 Kings.

Although expansion brought prosperity to the Assyrian Empire, it also required gaining access to strategic resources. One such resource was cavalry and chariot horses. While the best horses came from Egypt and Nubia, the distance between Assyria and Egypt presented a golden opportunity for Israel to serve as an intermediary in this trade network. Thus, as suggested by Finkelstein, “Israel could have imported Nubian horses from Egypt via the services of the cities of Philistia and established a horse breeding and training center at Megiddo. The horses were then sold to Assyria and other clients in the region.”

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Although this period of history at Megiddo ended when the city was captured by Tiglath-Pileser III in 732 BCE, the stables of Megiddo provide a window into the northern kingdom’s commercial and military strategy. Indeed, it was likely a strategy that relied on trade with the very empire that would eventually destroy it. Nevertheless, the chariots of Israel were a formidable, if short-lived, force in the biblical world.

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The Mystery of the Horses of the Sun at the Temple Entrance

Back to Megiddo

The post The Chariots of Israel appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Setting up camp in the Sinai Desert in the 1800s. Frith, Francis (Photographer), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Well known for its role in the biblical Exodus, the Sinai Peninsula spans roughly 23,000 square miles, making it larger than the modern state of Israel and two-thirds the size of Jordan. Widely believed to be the dramatic setting of the revelation of God’s divine name and the giving of the Ten Commandments, the Sinai Peninsula played a major part in the early history of the Israelites and in the broader movements of ancient peoples between Africa and Asia.

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The Bible’s Periphery

Despite being known today as Sinai, the peninsula has carried various names throughout history and only became widely referred to as the Sinai in modern times, based on its association with biblical Mt. Sinai. The earliest written references to the region come from the Egyptians, who began to colonize the area in the late fourth millennium BCE. Egyptian control over the region was primarily driven by the peninsula’s mineral wealth, especially turquoise. One of the most important turquoise mines was Serabit el-Khadem, where archaeologists in the early 20th century discovered some of the first known inscriptions in Proto-Sinaitic, the earliest alphabetic script.

Drawing of St. Catherine’s Monastery with Jebel Musa in the background. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible, Exodus.

Despite its central role in the story of the Exodus, the Sinai is only mentioned a handful of times elsewhere in the Bible. Yet, it can be assumed that the Sinai Peninsula played an essential role in many biblical stories, especially those involving Egypt. As the only land bridge between Asia and Africa, the peninsula was the primary route for armies and caravans moving to and from Egypt, which made the Sinai a key region for Egyptian pharaohs, such as Shishak and Necho, during their Levantine campaigns, as well as the prophet Jeremiah’s journey to Egypt.

Surprisingly, while the Israelites would have needed to cross the Sinai Peninsula during the Exodus, the mountain that gives the peninsula its modern name may not even be located in the Sinai Peninsula. Although many of the proposed locations for Mt. Sinai are located in the Sinai Peninsula, some scholars suggest that it might instead be located in North Arabia. Despite these scholarly debates, Jabal Musa, in south-central Sinai, remains the most widely accepted location.

In terms of geography, the Sinai Peninsula can be separated into two distinct zones. The northern portion, which makes up about two-thirds of the peninsula, is an expansive desert plateau that seamlessly connects to the neighboring Negev Desert and shares much of the same flora and fauna. The southern portion, however, is dominated by prominent mountain peaks, which have a much broader range of environmental and climatic zones.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

What Is the Galilee?

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Sinai 372 A.D.—An Excellent Year

Mt. Sinai—in Arabia?

Torah Before Sinai

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