The procession of Bacchus depicted on a frieze in Pompeii. Courtesy Pompeii Archaeological Park.

While carrying out excavations at the archaeological site of Pompeii in Italy, archaeologists uncovered a large banqueting room painted with a nearly life-size frieze of the sacred procession of Bacchus. Buried by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE, the frieze reveals fascinating details about Roman culture and the mystery cult of Bacchus.

FREE ebook. The Olympic Games: How They All Began. Read about the ancient origins of the Olympics, some 2,700 years ago. Download now.

Email(Required)

REQUEST FREE BOOK

Scene of Mystery Cult Initiation

The Initiate and Silenus on the Pompeii frieze. Courtesy Pompeii Archaeological Park.

The frieze was uncovered in the central part of Pompeii, as part of an ongoing project aimed at regenerating the archaeological and urban landscape of the ancient Roman city. Covering three walls of a large banquet hall, the frieze depicts the Thiasus (procession) of the god Bacchus, the Roman equivalent of the Greek Dionysus, the god of wine and festivity. This procession was primarily made up of women, known as bacchantes, and human-goat hybrids called satyrs. The frieze depicts the bacchantes as dancers and ferocious hunters, shown either with slaughtered goats or holding a sword and the innards of an animal. Meanwhile, one satyr is playing a double flute while the other offers a libation of wine. In the center of the frieze is a woman standing beside Silenus, the tutor and companion of Bacchus. The frieze depicts the woman as an initiate into the mysteries of Bacchus who, according to myth, died and was reborn, promising his followers the same. Above the procession of Bacchus was painted a second, smaller frieze with various animals, including deer, wild boar, chickens, birds, and fish.

The archaeologists at Pompeii gave the house the name Thiasus, in reference to the procession. Dated to the 40s or 30s BCE, the frieze connects directly to the mystery cult of Bacchus, one among many cults in antiquity that were only accessible by those who went through an initiation ritual, as illustrated in the frieze. It was only after initiation that one could learn the secrets of the cult. These cults were often linked to the promise of a new blissful life, in this world and the next.

One of the bacchantes with a goat over her shoulder. Courtesy Pompeii Archaeological Park.

According to Alessandro Giuli, the Italian Minister of Culture, the frieze “provides another glimpse into the rituals of the mysteries of Dionysus. It is an exceptional historical document and, together with the fresco of the Villa of the Mysteries, constitutes a one-of-a-kind, making Pompeii an extraordinary testimony to an aspect of life in classical Mediterranean life that is largely unknown.”

Our website, blog and email newsletter are a crucial part of Biblical Archaeology Society's nonprofit educational mission

This costs substantial money and resources, but we don't charge a cent to you to cover any of those expenses.

If you'd like to help make it possible for us to continue Bible History Daily, BiblicalArchaeology.org, and our email newsletter please donate. Even $5 helps:

View of the banquet hall of the house of Thiasus. Courtesy Pompeii Archaeological Park.

The house of the Thiasus was just one of many buildings in its neighborhood at Pompeii that included incredible and vibrant paintings. Other such examples were a large reception room decorated with scenes from the Trojan War, and a massive private bath complex with paintings of athletes and more scenes of the Trojan War.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on September 8, 2025.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

Pompeii Reborn

Pompeii Fast Food Restaurant Uncovered

A Shrine, Frescoes, and…Pizza?

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

The Destruction of Pompeii—God’s Revenge?

How to Find a Brothel in Pompeii

Climbing Vesuvius

The post The Bacchic Cult at Pompeii appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Pottery left behind in the luxurious baths following the destruction of Pompeii. Courtesy Archaeological Park of Pompeii.

Continued excavations at Pompeii have revealed possibly the largest private bath complex ever uncovered in the ancient city. Attached to an equally impressive house, the baths give a further glimpse into the luxury and pomp that could surround the life of an aristocratic Pompeiian family in the lead-up to the city’s destruction by Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE.

FREE ebook, Recipes from the BAR Test Kitchen Make your own food from recipes handed down from biblical times. Download now.

Email(Required)

REQUEST FREE BOOK

Bathing in Pompeii

The newly discovered private baths are one of the largest and most complex ever discovered at Pompeii, with a cold room that could host upwards of 30 people at a time. Hosted is certainly the key word, as the bath complex would have played an important role in turning the house into a tool to impress and flaunt the owner’s status. “Everything was designed to stage a show, in which the owner was the center of attention,” emphasized Gabriel Zuchtriegel, the director of the Archaeological Park of Pompeii.

After undressing in a changing room decorated with vibrant red walls and mosaic floors, those invited into the baths would have first entered the hot room. Here, the suspended floor allowed hot air to flow underneath, turning the room into a sauna, heated by a furnace. After this, they would have moved into a warm room where they would massage their skin with oils before finally entering the cold room. Here, they would have plunged into the pool or simply sat with their feet in the water, chatting with those around them. The walls of the cold room were ornately decorated, featuring wall paintings of athletes and scenes from the Trojan War. According to Zuchtriegel, this “must have lent these spaces a Greek atmosphere, in other words, an environment full of culture and erudition as well as relaxation. The peristyle with the large pool in the center and the adjoining thermal bath complex created a setting worthy of a Greek gymnasium which was further accentuated by the athletic scenes added later on.”

The cold room of the private bath complex featuring a central pool. Courtesy Archaeological Park of Pompeii.

Immediately adjacent to the bath complex was a large dining hall, known as the “black salon,” excavated the year before the pool’s discovery. Painted black and measuring about 50 feet long and 20 feet wide, the hall had an exquisite mosaic floor, and beautiful frescoes featuring mythological scenes inspired by the Trojan War. Together, the pool and the dining hall “would have transported guests into the world of a Greek palace,” said Zuchtriegel.

Map of the large house with the bath complex highlighted in red. Courtesy Archaeological Park of Pompeii.

With the dining hall and the bath complex, the house lent itself to becoming a stage for celebrating sumptuous banquets, offering the house’s owner the opportunity to flaunt his wealth, or perhaps to gain the electoral support of his guests. Beyond the house, the owner may have also owned nearby buildings, including a laundry and bakery.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on January 24, 2025.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

Excavating Pompeii’s Middle Class

Pompeii Fast Food Restaurant Uncovered

Pompeii Reborn

Roman Construction Site Uncovered at Pompeii

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

The Destruction of Pompeii—God’s Revenge?

How to Find a Brothel in Pompeii

Climbing Vesuvius

Pompeii Pizza?

The post Luxurious Private Bath Uncovered at Pompeii appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

The Natufian figurine, and artistic reproduction, of a woman and a goose, clay figurine depicting a woman leaning forward and a goose enveloping her. Courtesy Laurent Davin.

Carrying out excavations at a prehistoric village overlooking the Sea of Galilee, archaeologists from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem uncovered a small clay figurine unlike anything discovered before: a depiction of a woman with a goose draped across her shoulders. Dating to roughly 12,000 years ago—referred to by scholars as the Late Natufian period—the figurine is one of the earliest depictions of animal-human interaction.

Depicting Ancient Myth

At roughly 1.5 inches tall, the small figurine was discovered at Nahal Ein Gev II, within the fill material of a semicircular stone structure that contained both burials and ceremonial deposits. The figurine was crafted from local clay and fired at a very high temperature, suggesting a high level of control over pyrotechnic technologies.

The woman and the goose, and two of the researchers studying it. Courtesy Hadas Goldgeier.

The figurine depicts a crouched, naked woman. Across her shoulders is a goose, positioned to indicate that it was depicted as being alive. Chemical analysis revealed that ocher was used to paint the figurine, and that the use of light and shadow would have given it extra depth, foreshadowing artistic innovations that would flourish in the following Neolithic period (c. 8300–4500 BCE). Microscopic analysis revealed a fingerprint of the sculptor, who was likely a young man or an adult woman.

FREE ebook: Frank Moore Cross: Conversations with a Bible Scholar. Download now.

Email(Required)

REQUEST FREE BOOK

Different views of the 12,000-year-old Natufian clay figurine from Nahal Ein Gev II. Courtesy Laurent Davin.

According to the excavators, the figurine was probably imbued with symbolic meaning and could have represented a mythological encounter, connecting to ancient beliefs in the spiritual link between humans and animals. Faunal remains from the site support the importance of geese to the Natufian-period people who lived there, with goose feathers and bones having been used for decorations and ornaments.

“This discovery is extraordinary on multiple levels,” said Laurent Davin, lead author of the study, now published in the journal PNAS. “Not only is this the world’s earliest figurine depicting human-animal interaction, but it’s also the earliest naturalistic representation of a woman found in Southwest Asia.”

Leore Grosman, another of the study’s researchers, added, “The Nahal Ein Gev II figurine captures a transformative moment. It bridges the world of mobile hunter-gatherers and that of the first settled communities, showing how imagination and symbolic thinking began to shape human culture.”

Become a BAS All-Access Member Now!

Read Biblical Archaeology Review online, explore 50 years of BAR, watch videos, attend talks, and more

Related reading in Bible History Daily

12,000-Year-Old Natufian Bone Flutes

12,000-Year-Old Shaman Funeral Reflects Natufian-Period Changes

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

Archaeological Views: Prehistoric Dining at Tel Tsaf

Then and Now: A Slice of Ancient Life

Hidden Galilee Cave Yields Wealth of Prehistoric Remains

The post The Woman and the Goose appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

How did Noah build the ark? While we typically imagine Noah building a ship to carry his family and animals, ancient biblical art depicts the ark as a simple wooden box with legs, as in this well-preserved mosaic floor found at the site of Mopsuestia in Turkey. Photo by Klaus-Peter Simon, own work, CC BY 3.0

Reading the story of Noah’s ark today (Genesis 6–9), we naturally imagine that Noah, his family, and the loaded animals of all kinds survived the flood aboard a large wooden ship or other seaworthy vessel. After all, the ark was a boat, right?

Not so fast! Ancient biblical art depicts Noah’s ark not as a boat, but rather as a simple wooden box on legs. In his article “The Curious Case of Noah’s…Box?” in the Summer 2021 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review, archaeologist Shelley Wachsmann looks at examples of ancient biblical art and examines how early translations of the Hebrew word for “ark” may have influenced, in surprising and unexpected ways, ancient depictions of Noah’s fabled seaworthy construction.

So does ancient biblical art help us answer the question, “How did Noah build the ark?” It may seem odd, but early Christian and Jewish artists of the early first millennium C.E. portrayed Noah’s ark as a box, often with legs. The earliest depiction of the ark actually comes from the pagan city of Apamea Kibotos, where coins minted during the second and third centuries show Noah and his wife standing inside a box with an open lid. Above the lid is depicted a dove, bearing an olive branch, and a raven (Genesis 8:6–12).

This Apamean coin shows Noah and his wife in the ark, which is depicted as a box with an open lid floating on water, with the name Noah written in Greek. The coin dates to the mid-third century C.E. Image by Internet Archive Book Images. Public Domain.

Noah’s ark and the biblical flood story are also recurring themes in the mosaic floors that adorned churches and synagogues throughout the ancient world. One of the best-preserved and most elaborate scenes comes from the site of Mopsuestia, Turkey, where dozens of animals surround an open chest with four legs (see image above). A Greek inscription depicted on the chest’s open lid reads “the ark of Noah the redeemer.” More recently, excavations at the fifth-century synagogue of Huqoq in northern Israel revealed a similar mosaic carpet, also showing the ark not as a boat, but as a wooden chest with legs.

Become a BAS All-Access Member Now!

Read Biblical Archaeology Review online, explore 50 years of BAR, watch videos, attend talks, and more

It seems likely, therefore, that early Jewish and Christians artists, working in the early first millennium C.E., were influenced by overly literal interpretations of the translated Hebrew Bible, which suggested to them that Noah’s ark and the Ark of the Covenant were similar in appearance.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

Noah and the Flood

First Person: Art as Bible Interpretation

Jesus Holding a Magic Wand?

Where Noah Landed

New Huqoq Mosaics: Noah’s Ark and Exodus Scenes

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

The Curious Case of Noah’s … Box?

Noah and the Genesis Flood

Was Noah’s Ark a Sewn Boat?

An Ancient Coin Depicts Noah’s Ark

A Futile Quest: The Search for Noah’s Ark

The post How Did Noah Build the Ark? appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Limestone Relief of the Royal Family: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and the royal princesses blessed by the Aten. Credit: © Allan T. Kohl, MCAD Library, used under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic.

The pharaoh Akhenaten was a shrewd political operator who consolidated his power over ancient Egypt through strategic, administrative, and symbolic changes, beginning with the movement of the Egyptian capital from Thebes to Akhetaten (Tell el-Amarna) in the mid-14th century BCE. These changes ushered in a wholesale overhaul of Egyptian society, which is most visible in state religious institutions and royal artistic conventions. This was also a period of extensive trade and communication between Egypt and the various kingdoms and empires of the ancient Near East, as evidenced especially by the famous Amarna Letters.

FREE ebook: Ancient Israel in Egypt and the Exodus.

Email(Required)

REQUEST FREE BOOK

A New Day in Egypt

Akhenaten (known as Amenhotep IV for the first part of his kingship) reigned from 1353/1–1336/4 BCE. His religious changes were bold and unpopular but effectively eliminated other sources of power. The former capital of Thebes had been dedicated to Amun-Ra, the sun god and head of the Egyptian pantheon. Amun-Ra, however, was not the patron god of the new capital of Amarna. Instead, the king chose the solar deity Aten—typically represented as a sun disk—to be the god of not just the city, but of all Egypt. In adopting “Atenism,” the pharaoh ordered the closing of temples dedicated to other deities and confiscated their treasures.

But the new order came with a hitch. According to Eric Cline, a professor of Classical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies and Archaeology at George Washington University, Egyptians could “only worship the Aten from [then] on…[but could not] worship the Aten directly.” By positioning his patron as the sole deity, and himself as an earthly representation of the sun disk, Akhenaten eliminated the power of Egypt’s priests altogether and became the supreme ruler. Cline added, “He’s already the supreme commander administratively, now he’s the main guy religiously as well. He’s in control of everything.”

But how did this new control display itself in Egyptian art? The stela pictured above shows the royal family in a personal setting. The Aten disk sends its rays down to them, blessing them with ankh (“life”) symbols. Akhenaten and Nefertiti both slouch, and have stomach paunches, elongated heads and features, and thin limbs. This piece—and many others like it—served to convey that the royal family had direct access to and blessings from the deity, thus identifying them with godliness itself.

Statue of a Seated King Khafre, from the area of ancient Memphis in Egypt, that dates to the Fourth Dynasty. Credit: © D. Denisenkov, used under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic.

Egyptian statues typically depicted the pharaoh dressed in a nemis, or striped head cloth, with a uraeus (stylized cobra) on the forehead. Pharaohs, who are shown bare chested either seated, standing, or striding, typically wear a false beard and a pleated kilt. The seated pharaoh Khafre (left), along with many others, shares these common details with sculptures of Akhenaten.

Though his dress may be similar, Akhenaten’s body, however, is dramatically different from his predecessors: He has wide hips, thin limbs, and a belly pooch, a far cry from the refined musculature that characterizes most Egyptian art. Another noticeable difference is the face. The facial features of standard Egyptian sculptures are highly idealized: they have almond eyes, plastic eyebrows (applied to the statue rather than carved or molded), and a small mouth. The face of a statue was not meant to convey what a person looked like; rather, it communicated the idea of the subject. The stoic expression communicates the serenity, godliness, rigidity, and strength of the ruler, all qualities important to ancient Egyptian leadership.

Statue of Akhenaten. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Credit: © Warren LeMay, used under Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain.

Art historians have a number of theories on why Akhenaten’s body looks so different. It is possible he had a genetic condition, such as Froelich or Marfan syndrome, both of which manifest with features like the ones we associate with Akhenaten. His appearance could also have just been vanity: He liked how he looked and wanted to be remembered that way. Yet another theory holds that there was a fluid androgyny in Amarna art, perhaps symbolizing the non-gendered, life-giving character of the Aten sun disk.

Ultimately, however, all these theories are without definitive evidence and, as such, the real motivations behind the revolutionary aspects of Amarna art remain shrouded in mystery. “There are no answers,” Cline said, “and that is part of the fascination.”

Lila Wolk, a student in classics and ancient Near Eastern studies at George Washington University, is an editorial intern with the Biblical Archaeology Society.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on September 27, 2024.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

Missives to the Egyptian Court

Akhenaten and Moses

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

Did Akhenaten’s Monotheism Influence Moses?

Pharaoh’s Man, ‘Abdiel: The Vizier with a Semitic Name

Ancient Royal Library Found

The post The Amarna Revolution appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Rare stone seal with an Assyrian genie and paleo-Hebrew writing. Courtesy Eliyahu Yanai, City of David.

How did an Assyrian genie end up in Jerusalem during the First Temple period? During continued excavations of the City of David in Jerusalem, the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) uncovered a rare stone seal bearing two names in paleo-Hebrew script and a depiction of a Neo-Assyrian winged genie. Likely belonging to a high official in the Judahite court, the seal would have served as both a signature and a protective amulet.

The eBook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Past, Present, and Future, brings together articles and interviews with the world’s leading experts on the scrolls. Receive your free copy today!

Email(Required)

REQUEST FREE BOOK

The Apkallu of Yehoʼezer ben Hoshʼayahu

Discovered near the southern wall of the ancient Temple Mount, the seal is made of black stone and, in the words of excavation directors Yuval Baruch and Navot Rom, is “one of the most beautiful ever discovered in excavations in ancient Jerusalem.” In the center of the stone is a carefully carved depiction of an Assyrian winged genie. Surrounding the genie is the inscription leYehoʼezer ben Hoshʼayahu (to Yeho’ezer son of Hoshʼayahu) written haphazardly in the paleo-Hebrew script.

With a hole drilled through it, the seal was likely worn around the neck and served as both the personal seal and as a protective amulet of a local official. According to researchers, it may have originally been owned by a man named Hoshʼayahu, who held a senior position in the kingdom of Judah. Upon his death, his son, Yehoʼezer, inherited the seal and had his own name added to it. According to Ronny Reich of the University of Haifa, who partnered on the project, “Comparing the shape of the letters and the writing to those of other Hebrew seals and bullae (clay seal impressions) from Jerusalem shows that, in contrast to the careful engraving of the demon [genie], inscribing the names on the seal was done in a sloppy manner. It is not impossible that perhaps it was Yehoʼezer himself who engraved the names on the object.”

The stone seal. Courtesy Emil Aladjem, IAA.

Unlike the inscription, however, the genie in the seal’s center is masterfully carved. Depicted in profile, the winged figure is seen striding towards the right, wearing a long-striped tunic and a diadem. Such genies are characteristic of the art of the Assyrian Empire, which held considerable sway over the vassal kingdom of Judah during the late eighth and seventh centuries BCE. Often associated with apkallu (antediluvian sages and kings), these genies were typically displayed in palaces and temples. The use of such a distinctive Assyrian artistic element in the seal of a Judahite administrator reflects the cultural milieu in which Judah found itself as an Assyrian vassal.

According to Filip Vukosavović, an archaeologist with the IAA, “It seems that the object was made by a local craftsman—a Judahite, who produced the amulet at the owner’s request. It was prepared at a very high artistic level.”

Not everyone agrees with this conclusion, however. “It’s not a local seal motif; I would assume it’s a reuse,” said Shai Gordin, an Assyriologist at Ariel University, in a communication with Bible History Daily. “There are examples of seal reuse in the area, for example in Aramaic seals and even so-called hieroglyphic Luwian-looking seals in the Levant that are pseudo-hieroglyphic.” A major reason to doubt the seal’s Jerusalem origins comes down to the differing quality of the genie in comparison to the inscription. As opposed to a local craftsman who knew how to perfectly carve an Assyrian apkallu, a more plausible scenario is that either Yeho’ezer or Hoshʼayahu came into possession of an Assyrian seal through trade or travel, at which point they had their names carved into it.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on August 30, 2024.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

Lamassu from Dur-Sharrukin Revealed

What Is Akkadian?

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

Assyrian Palace Discovered in Ashdod

Europe Confronts Assyrian Art

Grisly Assyrian Record of Torture and Death

The post An Assyrian Genie in First Temple Jerusalem appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Lamassu in Dur-Sharrukin. Courtesy Ahmed Al Mamoori, Iraqi Ministry of Culture, Tourism, and Antiquities.

A joint Iraqi-French excavation at the ancient site of Dur-Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad in northern Iraq) has uncovered an imposing Lamassu statue. The massive statue dates to the reign of Sargon II (r. 722–705 BCE), who built the city of Dur-Sharrukin (Akkadian for “the fortress of Sargon”) and made it the capital of the growing Neo-Assyrian Empire.

FREE ebook: From Babylon to Baghdad. Ancient Iraq. Learn about Iraq and its cultural heritage. Download now.

Email(Required)

REQUEST FREE BOOK

A Lamassu without a Head 

Head of the Dur-Sharrukin Lamassu. Courtesy Ahmed Al Mamoori, Iraqi Ministry of Culture, Tourism, and Antiquities.

One of several Lamassus recovered from the ancient capital, this statue is remarkable for its incredible preservation, save for its missing head, which was looted from the site in 1995, but is today housed in the Iraqi National Museum in Baghdad. According to France 24, the Lamassu, which is made out of alabaster, stands 12.5 feet tall, is nearly 13 feet long, and weighs approximately 20 tons. In antiquity, it was placed at the entrance to one of Dur-Sharrukin’s city gates, where it served as a protective spirit.

The Lamassu was originally uncovered in the early 1990s by Iraqi archaeologists. However, after its head was stolen, the statue was reburied for its protection. This turned out to be the statue’s saving grace; being largely hidden, it was not further damaged during either the Iraq War or the conflict with ISIS. Fortunately, the Iraqi government recovered the stolen head while it was being smuggled out of the country.

Lamassus were common and important figures in Assyrian art, frequently depicted as human-headed bulls with wings. Representing protective spirits, these massive statues were often placed within the gates and entryways of cities and royal buildings as displays of power. The statues, which were carved in high relief, were made with five legs so that they would appear standing when viewed from the front or striding when viewed from the side. Another Lamassu excavated at Dur-Sharrukin, now housed in the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures (ISAC) Museum in Chicago, measures 16 feet tall and weighs 40 tons.

A Lamassu standing next to a Statue of Gilgamesh in the Louvre. Gary Todd from Xinzheng, China, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Sargon II, who commissioned the Lamassu for his new capital city, was one of the most important kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Sargon greatly expanded Assyria’s territory, strengthening its control over many regions, including Israel’s Northern Kingdom. He is mentioned in passing in the Book of Isaiah (20:1), and some Assyriologists suggest he played an important role in the conquest of Samaria, which took place the year he ascended the throne. Likely a younger son of Tiglath-Pileser III, who conquered much of the Northern Kingdom (2 Kings 15:29), Sargon was the founder of the Sargonid dynasty, which ruled over Assyria until its conquest by Babylon in 612 BCE. Sargon’s son and successor, Sennacherib, would become one of the Bible’s most frequently mentioned Assyrian monarchs because of his invasion of Judah and near conquest of Jerusalem in 701 BCE.

Read more in Bible History Daily:

Hanging Gardens of Babylon … in Assyrian Nineveh

The Decline of the Neo-Assyrian Empire

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library:

Assyrian Palace Discovered in Ashdod

Europe Confronts Assyrian Art

Grisly Assyrian Record of Torture and Death

Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

The post Lamassu from Dur-Sharrukin Revealed appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Limestone boar statue from Gobekli Tepe. Courtesy DAI-IST, Lee Clare.

Excavators at the site of Gobekli Tepe in southeastern Turkey have uncovered the life-size statue of a wild boar, carved out of limestone. According to a statement by the German Archaeological Institute, the statue dates to the early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (c. 8700–8200 BCE). The boar is yet another of the dozens of statues and reliefs discovered at the incredible cultic site of Gobekli Tepe. Described as Turkey’s Stonehenge, Gobekli Tepe predates that site, as well as the Egyptian pyramids and even the invention of writing, by more than 5,000 years.

FREE ebook: Ten Top Biblical Archaeology Discoveries. Finds like the Pool of Siloam in Israel, where the Gospel of John says Jesus miraculously restored sight to a blind man.

Email(Required)

REQUEST FREE BOOK

A Wild Boar at Gobekli Tepe

The boar statue was discovered within the remains of one of the site’s buildings, dubbed Special Building D. Placed on top of a long and decorated bench between two pillars, the boar occupied a central position within the building. The decorations of the bench include depictions of snakes, human faces, and geometric designs. Roughly the size of an actual boar, the statue is 4.5 feet long and a little over 2 feet tall.

The boar statue between two massive T-shaped pillars. Courtesy DAI-IST, Lee Clare.

Archaeologists were also able to detect various pigments on the statue, including red, black, and white. While red was found on the boar’s tongue, black and white were found on the body, indicating that the entire piece was likely once painted. It has long been believed that many of the pillars and statues at Gobekli Tepe were decorated with color, but this is one of the first to provide clear evidence to support this hypothesis.

Gobekli Tepe and the Birth of Neolithic Religion

Gobekli Tepe (which means “Potbelly Hill” in Turkish) is thought to be one of the oldest religious sites in the world and has been called the “world’s first temple.” Predating sites like Stonehenge (c. 3000–2000 BCE) and the Stepped Pyramid of Djoser (c. 2660 BCE) by many thousands of years, Gobekli Tepe has drastically altered what anthropologists think about the origins of ancient religion. Previous theories had suggested religion only developed after the establishment of agriculture and village life. However, Gobekli Tepe appears to appeared earlier, having been built by what was likely a hunter-gatherer society. While there is plentiful evidence of Neolithic religion around the ancient Near East, almost all of this evidence postdates Gobekli Tepe by thousands of years, although the tower of Jericho, which some believe to have also been a cultic installation, possibly dates to only a few hundred years later.

Map of Gobekli Tepe. Courtesy Biblical Archaeology Society.

Gobekli Tepe includes a number of circular enclosers, consisting of massive T-shaped pillars, some as tall as 16 feet and weighing 50 tons. Many of the pillars are ornately decorated with elaborate carvings, including depictions of vultures, scorpions, lions, bulls, boars, foxes, gazelles, donkeys, snakes, human figures, and more. Some of the anthropomorphic figures even include details such as arms, legs, and clothes.

Excavations at Gobekli Tepe have uncovered tens of thousands of animal bones, indicating that many different species—including those depicted on the pillars—were slaughtered, sacrificed, and presumably eaten at the site. While it is uncertain to whom these sacrifices were made, it is possible they were offered to the site’s anthropomorphic pillars, which, as some have suggested, may represent priests, deities, or revered ancestors. Given that human bones were also found, others believe the Göbekli Tepe ruins may have been a Neolithic burial ground where funerary rituals and perhaps even excarnations were practiced.

Read more in Bible History Daily:

The Göbekli Tepe Ruins and the Origins of Neolithic Religion

Striking Discovery Sheds Light on Neolithic People

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library:

In the Beginning: Religion at the Dawn of Civilization

Mysterious Jewish Building in Roman Turkey

Colossae—Colossal in Name Only?

Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

The post 11,000-Year-Old Boar Statue Uncovered at Gobekli Tepe appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Parthenon relief with three horsemen. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible,  Acts.

Despite the long-held perception that ancient Greek and Roman sculptures were undecorated pure white marble, decades of investigation have shown that they were often brightly colored and stylized objects. The same is true for the grandiose Parthenon in Athens, with its plethora of fantastically carved panels and sculptures. Publishing in the journal Antiquity, a team of British and American researchers examined a number of the Parthenon sculptures housed in the British Museum, showing that they were carved and painted to accentuate particular features of the sculptures.

Examining the Parthenon

Although color was used extensively on ancient marble sculptures, centuries of weathering, damage, and overzealous cleaning have largely removed any traces of paint. This left behind the pure white that both Renaissance and modern viewers have thought so characteristic of ancient art. To reconstruct the color of these artistic wonders, scholars use precise scientific tools able to spot specks of color no longer visible to the naked eye. Such is the case with the Parthenon sculptures. Scientists have already identified splotches of green and blue on various pieces of these magnificent works of art.

To get a better idea of the use and intention of color on the Parthenon marbles, a team used a range of techniques to examine the sculptures in the British Museum. These included visible-induced luminescence, fiber-optic reflectance spectroscopy, and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. With these tools, the team was able to show the Parthenon in a completely new light, discovering sections of Egyptian blue, purple, and various shades of white.

FREE ebook. The Olympic Games: How They All Began. Read about the ancient origins of the Olympics, some 2,700 years ago. Download now.

Email(Required)

REQUEST FREE BOOK

The colors of the Parthenon sculptures appear to have mimicked reality, with blue used for things such as water and sky, as well as on the garments of various figures. According to the study, color “was one of the most immediately visible elements of architectural sculptures.” “In addition to being aesthetically pleasing, the use of color might also have been intended to aid the viewer in the identification of the figures from a distance, for religious or even political purposes.” Unfortunately, due to the extreme loss of paint across much of the Parthenon marbles, it is not yet possible to fully reconstruct what it would have looked like in antiquity.

In addition, the study identified some of the finer techniques used to sculpt the marbles. These techniques appear to have been used intentionally, in different places, to present different textures. Woven fabrics, for example, were cut in a more rugged style, while the polished neck of the god Helios was carved with fine tools to give it a smooth appearance. The sculptures further included a number of drill holes to affix bracelets, necklaces, and other adornments and decorations. Interestingly, the study also demonstrated that the sculptors worked section by section within the building’s frieze, finishing one part completely before moving on to the next.

Initiated by the Athenian general and politician, Pericles, the Parthenon was constructed in the mid-fifth century BCE, after the Greek victory over the Persian Empire. The Parthenon is one of the ancient world’s most famous buildings and is thought to be a pinnacle of Greek art. Despite this, many of the Parthenon’s chief artistic elements remain outside of Greek control.

The marbles housed in the British Museum—sometimes referred to as the Elgin Marbles—were acquired by Sir Thomas Bruce, Earl of Elgin, in the early 19th century. With permission from the Ottoman Empire (which at the time ruled over Greece), Bruce removed nearly half of the surviving sculptures from the Parthenon and other buildings on the Athenian Acropolis. Even in his own time, Bruce’s actions were controversial, being likened to looting and vandalism by the famous English poet, Lord Byron.

Read more in Bible History Daily:

Vatican Returns Parthenon Marbles

The Athenian Acropolis

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library:

Greeks vs. Hittites

Excavating Minoan Sites

Pan at Hippos: Face of Greek God Unearthed

Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

The post Recoloring the Parthenon appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Fresco of the Good Shepherd. By Wilpert, Joseph (1857—1944). Public Domain.

A short walk through Rome confirms the richness of its history. From the Pantheon to the Colosseum, the city boasts magnificent architecture and art. Yet it might surprise that some of the city’s most significant art lies beneath its surface.

Rome has more than 40 catacombs scattered around its ancient perimeter, often along major roads, that date from the second through fifth centuries CE. These underground burial sites consist of halls and chambers with burial niches. They also contain funerary inscriptions and art that provide insight into the city’s ancient pagan, Jewish, and Christian inhabitants.

For the intrepid traveler who wishes to see some of the earliest Christian art—from not only Rome, but also the entire world—a visit to the Catacomb of Priscilla is essential. Sometimes called the Queen Catacomb because of the many martyrs and popes buried there, the Catacomb of Priscilla has miles of subterranean tunnels spread across two main levels. Walking through the catacomb in the dim light gives the feeling of being in a labyrinth. Fortunately, you’re never unescorted, so you won’t get lost!

Become a BAS All-Access Member Now!

Read Biblical Archaeology Review online, explore 50 years of BAR, watch videos, attend talks, and more

Planning Your Visit

The catacomb sits along the Via Salaria in the Trieste neighborhood of Rome, about a 20-minute drive from the city center. Access is by guided tour only, and reservations tend to fill up quickly, especially during the spring and summer. I’d recommend booking your tour at least a week beforehand. If your schedule is not flexible, you would want to book it even earlier, to secure your desired tour time. Just a note that the Catacomb of Priscilla is closed on Mondays, so be sure to plan accordingly.

Tours are available in three languages: English, Italian, and Spanish. Tickets are about $10—or a little more if booked online, as booking fees apply. Children under age 6 can enter for free. You can make a reservation directly through their website or find a third-party tour that will take you through several catacombs. The latter would be a better option for those who wish to see both Jewish and Christian funerary art.

Your Journey Through the Catacomb of Priscilla

Your tour of the Catacomb of Priscilla begins at the ticket office and gift shop, located in a cloister of the convent of the Benedictine Sisters of Priscilla. After meeting your guide and the rest of your group, you descend together into the catacomb via a staircase. It is significantly colder in the catacomb than outside. I’d suggest bringing a long-sleeved layer, such as a light jacket or sweater.

They advise arriving 15 minutes before the time of your reservation, which is wise considering the irregularities of traffic in Rome. The tour will not wait for latecomers, and it’s not always possible to slip into a later time slot, as they are often full. However, if you are late, not all is lost. Someone at the ticket office may escort you to join up with the rest of the group.

Tours last 30 minutes and take visitors on a partial route of the vast catacomb. Highlights include third-century frescoes of the magi with Mary and Jesus as an infant (Matthew 2:11) … and of the Good Shepherd (John 10:11; see image above). The scene of the magi is the earliest extant depiction of the magi, or three wise men. It also competes as being the earliest depiction of Mary—and maybe even Jesus.^a The catacomb contains numerous scenes and figures from the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) as well, including Noah, Jonah, and Daniel.

On your tour, you will likely be shown two more frescoes that supposedly depict Mary: a scene of the Annunciation (Luke 1:26–38) and of the Madonna and Child next to a prophet pointing at a star (Numbers 24:17; Matthew 2:9), but these may not be biblical. Prior to modern restorations, they resembled traditional Roman funerary scenes.

Photography is not permitted in the catacomb, as exposure to light damages the delicate frescoes. However, for those who wish to remember their visit, postcards and books are available in the gift shop.

After exploring the most famous portions of the catacomb, the guide leads you back through the winding passageways to the gift shop, where the tour ends. Before continuing on your exploration of Rome, you may wish to use the lavatories at the rear of the gift shop or rest in the connecting shaded courtyard.

Rome is a special city, as its past is intertwined with its present. This is especially apparent with the catacomb, whose tunnels sprawl beneath the Villa Ada Park, which sits across the street from cafés, restaurants, and shops. The catacomb entrance itself is connected to a functioning convent. And both the convent and the catacomb bear the name “Priscilla,” probably the patroness who donated the land for the burials nearly 2,000 years ago. She and those buried in the catacomb certainly left their mark on a city that has served as a political, commercial, and religious capital for millennia.

Notes:

a. For more on the earliest Christian art, including frescoes from Dura-Europos in eastern Syria, see Mary Joan Winn Leith, “Earliest Depictions of the Virgin Mary“, BAR, March/April 2017.

Related reading in Bible History Daily:

Tour the Roman Catacombs

Classical Corner: A Subterranean Surprise in the Roman Catacombs

Priscilla in the New Testament

Millions of Mummified Dogs Uncovered at Saqqara

The post The Catacomb of Priscilla appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.