Ptolemaic period mummified individual. Courtesy Paul Hudson from United Kingdom, CC-BY 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Few things captivate the imagination like Egyptian mummies. Their intricate wrappings and lifelike preservation carry both religious significance and enduring mystery. A recent study focuses on something far more earthly: their smell.

Mummified remains have a distinctive musty and woody aroma, which has been shown to preserve a chemical record of ancient embalming practices. The  study is showing how scientists can read that record without harming the priceless burials. Even the faintest scents from mummified remains carry a wealth of historical information, offering new ways to connect with Egypt’s ancient past without unwrapping a single bandage.

Mummification in ancient Egypt was not just a burial practice but a spiritual one. Preserving the body ensured safe passage into the afterlife. Over thousands of years, Egyptians experimented with natural materials that slow decay, including animal fats, plant oils, beeswax, resins, and, later, bitumen. Each material leaves a chemical “fingerprint,” releasing tiny molecules into the air called volatile organic compounds.

The study’s innovation lies in analyzing these compounds non-invasively. Scientists capture them on fiber waved in the air around the mummified remains. The compounds stick to the fiber and are then analyzed to identify which embalming materials were used. Instead of cutting into the remains, researchers “sniff” it chemically. The researchers report that short-chain fatty acids reveal oils, mono-carboxylic fatty acids and cinnamic compounds indicate beeswax, sesquiterpenoids point to resins, and naphthenic compounds signal bitumen.

This approach even distinguishes differences between mummified individuals from different historical periods, showing how embalming materials age over time. Some compounds degrade quickly; others persist for millennia. Understanding these patterns helps explain why two mummified individuals may smell different despite similar treatments. It also illuminates the evolution of Egyptian embalming, from simple fats and oils to complex mixtures including costly resins and bitumen.

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The study has relevance for biblical archaeology as well. Ancient Israelite custom held that corpses be washed, anointed with oils and spices, and wrapped—a process also reflected in New Testament accounts of Jesus and Lazarus. After Jesus’s crucifixion, for example, his body was washed, anointed with myrrh and aloes, and wrapped in linen before being laid in a tomb (John 19:39–40). While Israelite and early Christian practices did not involve chemical embalming, the careful washing, anointing, and wrapping reflects a similar spiritual care: honoring the deceased, masking decay, and preparing the body for what comes next.

Lauren K. McCormick is an assistant editor at Biblical Archaeology Review and a specialist in ancient Near Eastern religions, visual culture, and the Bible. She holds degrees in religion from Syracuse University, Duke University, New York University, and Rutgers University, and completed a postdoctoral fellowship on religion and the public conversation at Princeton University.

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Researchers at the Field Museum scan one of the mummified individuals within their collection. Courtesy The Field Museum, Morgan Clark.

More than just the stuff of Hollywood movies, mummies and mummified remains have been the subject of scientific inquiry for centuries. Although early studies of mummies tended to be rather destructive, technological advances have opened up new opportunities. Recently, specialists with Chicago’s Field Museum have used a mobile CT scanner to gain new insight into ancient Egyptian funerary practices and the lives of individuals who lived thousands of years ago.

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Unwrapping the Mummy

Using the CT scanner, the team scanned 26 individuals within their collection. By taking thousands of X-ray images and stitching them together, the scanner produces a virtual 3D image of an object, inside and out, thus allowing researchers to peek behind the funerary wrappings of the mummies without ever having to unwrap them or risk damage.

“From an archaeological perspective, it is incredibly rare that you get to investigate or view history from the perspective of a single individual,” said Stacy Drake, Human Remains Collection Manager at the Field Museum. “This is a really great way for us to look at who these people were—not just the stuff that they made and the stories that we have concocted about them, but the actual individuals that were living at this time.”

One of the individuals they scanned lived around 3,000 years ago. Named Lady Chenet-aa, she died around the age of 30 or 40 and likely had a hard life, as the bread she ate contained sand particles that slowly destroyed her teeth, especially the enamel. Fascinatingly, however, the scans revealed that upon her death, Chenet-aa had replacement eyes put in her eye sockets so that she would be able to see in the afterlife.

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The CT scans of Chenet-aa also answered a long mystery surrounding her mummy: how she got into her funerary box, called a cartonnage. The papier-mâché-like structure featured no obvious seam and had only a small opening near her feet, not large enough to fit through in one piece. However, the CT scans revealed a previously unnoticed seam along the back of the cartonnage, as well as lacing. Based on the new information, the researchers determined that the cartonnage must have been molded around the body while the material was softened with moisture and the body was standing upright. The seam was then sewn shut and a wooden panel was placed inside through the opening near the feet to keep everything in place. The team hopes that continued analysis and more scans will provide even more information about these individuals and the practice of embalming in ancient Egypt.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on November 18, 2024.

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Collection of gold tongues and nails Oxyrhynchus. Courtesy Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

Excavations at the site of Oxyrhynchus in Middle Egypt have uncovered a new tomb complex dated to the Ptolemaic period (c. 304–30 BCE). According to the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, the tomb complex features a number of finds including paintings and statuettes. One of the most fascinating finds, however, is over a dozen mummies with golden tongues.

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A Mythical Practice

The tomb complex consists of three chambers connected to a hall at the bottom of a burial shaft. The whole complex was likely used as a mass cemetery. Among the finds were amulets, scarabs, texts, painted ritual scenes, and 13 mummies with tongues and nails. The practice of adding golden tongues to mummies was intended to aid the deceased in the afterlife by allowing them to speak, as according to Egyptian lore, gold was the flesh of the gods.

“The number of gold tongues here is high, which is interesting,” Salima Ikram, a professor of Egyptology at the American University in Cairo, told Live Science. “Possibly the bodies belong to higher elites that were associated with the temple and animal cults that proliferated in the area,” Ikram said, noting it’s possible that gold tongues “might have been the vogue for the embalming house in the area.”

Tomb painting of several Egyptian deities on a boat. Courtesy Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

Another nearby burial shaft also led to another tomb complex made up of three chambers, one of which included several incredible paintings depicting Egyptian deities in various settings. One painting depicts the owner of the tomb, named Wen-Nefer, accompanied by several deities. Another painting depicts a boat with multiple deities.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on January 6, 2025.

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Limestone Canopic Jar of the Egyptian lady Senetnay. Courtesy Christian Tepper, Museum August Kestner.

Analyzing residue from two canopic jars from the 3,500-year-old tomb of an Egyptian noblewoman, a team of researchers has discovered the ingredients to an Egyptian mummification balm. The team identified over half a dozen different substances used within the balm, publishing their results in the journal Scientific Reports. Coined the “scent of eternity,” the ancient aroma will be presented at the Moesgaard Museum in Denmark in an upcoming exhibition, offering visitors a chance to catch a whiff of the ancient Egyptian mummification process.

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Smelling the Afterlife

Practiced for nearly 4,000 years, mummification is one of the most ubiquitous features of ancient Egypt, predating the pyramids by a millennium. Now, another aspect of this important practice has been unlocked—the ingredients used to preserve and scent the body for eternity.

Performing residue analysis on a pair of canopic jars dating to around 1450 BCE, an international team identified the balm as a blend of beeswax, plant oil, fats, bitumen, larch resin, a balsamic substance, and dammar or pistachio tree resin. “These complex and diverse ingredients, unique to this early period, offer a novel understanding of the sophisticated mummification practices and Egypt’s far-reaching trade routes,” said Egyptologist and museum curator Christian Loeben in a press release by the Max Planck Institute.

Among the ingredients that would have been imported to Egypt are larch resin and dammar. Larch resin is native to the northern side of the Mediterranean, around the area of the Alps. Likewise, dammar resin would have been imported from Southeast Asia along long-distance trade routes. Dammar was used for balms during the first millennium BCE, but it had not previously been identified in this context at such an early date.

The two canopic jars analyzed in the study belonged to Senetnay, the wet nurse of Pharaoh Amenhotep II (r. 1427–1401 BCE). Although Senetnay’s body was not discovered, the four canopic jars that once stored her organs were uncovered in 1900 inside her tomb in the Valley of the Kings. For the study, however, the team was only able to analyze two of the jars, those containing her lungs and liver.

The mummification process was one of the core components of Egyptian funerary procedures and served to preserve the deceased’s body in the afterlife. During this process, the individual’s organs were frequently removed and stored within canopic jars that took various forms. Those of Senetnay were crafted to look like her. Despite the mummification process being very common in ancient Egypt, few written sources provide information on the recipe for the balm, and the information that is available dates to later periods, leaving the recipe from earlier times largely unknown. Interestingly, the results from the two analyzed jars were slightly different, possibly indicating that each organ was treated individually, with different recipes used for each.

Dammar resin next to a bottle of the recreated ancient scent. Courtesy Barbara Huber.

While the balm was intended to preserve the organs, it also served the function of a perfume. Working closely with a perfumer, the team meticulously recreated the scent based on their findings, naming their perfume the “scent of eternity.” According to Barbara Huber, lead author of the study, “The scent of eternity represents more than just the aroma of the mummification process. It embodies the rich cultural, historical, and spiritual significance of ancient Egyptian mortuary practices.”

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Mummified remains uncovered at Saqqara along with the mummification workshops. Courtesy Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

Egyptian excavations at the UNESCO World Heritage site of Saqqara, south of Cairo, have revealed two of the most complete mummification workshops ever discovered. Announced by the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, the two workshops date to Egypt’s 30th Dynasty (c. 380–343 BCE) and served the Egyptian capital of Memphis. The team also announced the discovery of two large tombs, one from the Old Kingdom period (c. 2663–2181 BCE) and the other from the New Kingdom period (c. 1570–1070 BCE).

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Mummification in Egypt

The two mummification workshops are some of the newest discoveries at the archaeologically rich Saqqara necropolis, which includes funerary temples, tombs, and countless mummified remains. One of the recently uncovered workshops was used for human mummification, while the other was used for animals, a popular practice in ancient Egypt.

The human mummification workshop was divided into several small rooms with two stone beds upon which the deceased were placed. The roughly 6-foot-long, inclined beds ended in gutters to help drain and collect fluids. The rooms were filled with canopic jars, wrapping linens, resins for treating the body, and organ removal utensils.

Similarly, the animal mummification workshop contained limestone beds along with a large amount of pottery and bronze tools. The excavations also revealed several animal burials within the workshop itself, indicate that the workshop was used for the mummification of animals sacred to the cat goddess Bastet.

Statue of Men Khaber Ra from Saqqara. Courtesy Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

In addition to the mummification workshops, the team uncovered two large tombs. The first—described as “one of [Saqqara’s] most beautiful tombs” by Mostafa Waziri, Secretary-General of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities—dates to the Old Kingdom period, specifically the Fifth Dynasty (c. 25th–24th centuries BCE). It belonged to a man named Ne Hesut Ba, who was the head scribe and priest of the gods Horus and Maat. The tomb was a rectangular mastaba, with a facade that contained offering scenes and hieroglyphic texts with the names and titles of the owner of the tomb and his wife. The tomb’s interior was similarly decorated with depictions of daily life, including agricultural and fishing scenes.

The second tomb belonged to a priest named Men Khaber Ra, who served the Canaanite-inspired goddess Qadesh during the 18th Dynasty (c. 16th–13th centuries BCE). The tomb was carved into a rocky outcrop with a limestone extension. The walls of the tomb were plastered with scenes of the owner with his wife and son sitting before an offering table. A niche built into the northern side of the tomb included a 3-foot-tall alabaster statue of Men Khaber Ra with four cartouches on his chest and shoulders mentioning pharaohs Thutmose III (c. 1481–1425 BCE) and Thutmose IV (c. 1401–1397 BCE).

Since large-scale excavations began at Saqqara in 2018, the site has continued to provide incredible finds from across the span of Egyptian history. According to Egypt’s Minister of Tourism and Antiquities, Ahmed Issa, the incredible finds from Saqqara will serve as a major boost to the country’s tourism sector, making it a preeminent global tourist destination. “I assure you that Egypt, especially the archaeological site of Saqqara, has not yet revealed all its secrets and there are many more to come,” said Issa. All of the finds from Saqqara are expected to be brought to the Grand Egyptian Museum. The artifacts will be studied, preserved, and curated for future display.

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Zahi Hawass examaning a collection of statues. Courtesy Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

Excavations at Saqqara south of Cairo continue to reveal incredible finds, including what may be the oldest mummified person ever found in Egypt. According to the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, archaeologists uncovered the mummified remains of a man named Hekashepes, whose burial dates to the 23rd century BCE. The team also uncovered the tombs of several other royal and religious officials.

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As described in a press conference held by the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Hekashepes’s tomb was discovered at the bottom of a 50-foot shaft. Within the tomb, the team uncovered the man’s 4,300-year-old remains covered with gold leaf inside a sealed limestone sarcophagus. As stated by Zahi Hawass, director of the team and former Minister of Antiquities, “This mummy may be the oldest and most complete mummy found in Egypt to date.”

Hekashepes’s tomb was one of several discovered within a complex dating to the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties of Egypt’s Old Kingdom (c. 2663–2181 BCE). Included among them was the tomb of an important Egyptian official named Khnumdjedef, who served as the inspector of officials and priest of the pyramid complex of Pharaoh Unas, the last pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty (mid-24th century BCE).

Another tomb was for Meri, “keeper of the secrets and assistant to the great leader of the palace.” A second shaft tomb included the sarcophagus and mummified remains of a man identified by an inscription as Fetek. Other tombs revealed collections of statues, including those of a husband and wife with several servants.

These tombs are just a few of the many uncovered at Saqqara, which was the necropolis for the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis. Since their discovery in 2018, the Saqqara tombs have provided incredible finds from across the span of ancient Egyptian history. Among the finds have been hundreds of sarcophagi, human and animal mummies, grave goods, and statues.

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The tunnel Under the Egyptian Temple, Taposiris Magna. Courtesy Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

While looking for the burial place of Queen Cleopatra, archaeologists uncovered the entrance to a long tunnel running underneath the Egyptian temple of Taposiris Magna, located just west of Alexandria. Partly submerged under the Mediterranean Sea, the tunnel likely originally served as an aqueduct. Although not an entrance to Cleopatra’s tomb as the archaeological team had hoped, this incredible discovery demonstrates there is still much to be discovered from ancient Egypt.

A Mysterious Tunnel Under an Egyptian Temple?

For more than a decade and half, archaeologist Kathleen Martinez of the University of San Domingo has searched the Taposiris Magna Temple for the tomb of Cleopatra and Marc Antony, but to no avail. But while the tomb has yet to be discovered, her expedition continues to uncover remarkable new finds from the temple. Now, these finds include an unexpected and massive tunnel.

Entrance shaft of the tunnel. Courtesy Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

Called a “geometric marvel” by the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, the 6.5-foot high tunnel runs for roughly 4,300 feet at a depth of 65 feet below the surface. The tunnel was likely used for carrying water, as according to Martinez (via Live Science) it is “an exact replica of Eupalinos Tunnel in Greece, which is considered as one of the most important engineering achievements of antiquity.” That tunnel, located on the island of Samos, served as an aqueduct for nearly 1,000 years.

The Taposiris Magna Temple (meaning “Great Tomb of Osiris”) and the tunnel were likely built together in the early third century BCE and were in use throughout the Ptolemaic period (c. 304–30 BCE). Today, a section of both the tunnel and temple are partly submerged in the Mediterranean Sea as a result of one of the many earthquakes that struck the area in antiquity.

In addition to the tunnel, Martinez and her team made several other discoveries around the Egyptian temple, including two Ptolemaic-era alabaster statues, several coins, and numerous ceramics. In previous seasons, the team uncovered a cemetery filled with Greco-Roman style mummies, a statue of the goddess Isis, mummies with gold-plated tongues, figurines, and numerous coins bearing the image of Cleopatra.

A small alabaster head, discovered in the tunnel under Taposiris Magna. Courtesy Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

Cleopatra (r. 51–30 BCE), the last of the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt, is believed by many scholars to have been buried with her husband, Marc Antony, the Roman general and right hand of Julius Caesar. The pair chose to commit suicide rather than be conquered by the Roman Empire. Although she has not yet uncovered Cleopatra’s tomb, Martinez believes she is getting close.

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“If there’s a one percent chance that the last queen of Egypt could be buried there, it is my duty to search for her,” Martinez said in an interview. “If we discover the tomb … it will be the most important discovery of the 21st century. If we do not discover the tomb … we made major discoveries here, inside the temple and outside the temple.”

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Queen Nefertiti’s tomb. Boundary stele showing Nefertiti. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible.

Has Queen Nefertiti’s tomb been identified behind the burial chamber of Tutankhamun? It has been an ongoing debate since 2015 when Egyptologist Nicholas Reeves proposed that the famous Egyptian queen’s burial chamber lay behind that of her stepson. The theory appeared to have been put to rest in 2018, after a series of inconclusive radar scans. Now, however, Reeves claims to have uncovered new evidence that might revive his theory.

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Nefertiti’s Shared Tomb?

Bust of Nefertiti. Courtesy Philip Pikart, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

A Guardian interview with Reeves suggests the debate over the location of Queen Nefertiti’s tomb is far from settled. According to the article, several newly identified pieces of evidence have reignited this debate. Among them is the discovery of formerly hidden hieroglyphs underneath cartouches in Tutankhamun’s tomb. These cartouches—which depict Tutankhamun’s successor, Ay, laying him to rest—may have been painted over those of Tutankhamun.

“I can now show that, under the cartouches of Ay, are cartouches of Tutankhamun himself, proving that that scene originally showed Tutankhamun burying his predecessor, Nefertiti. You would not have had that decoration in the tomb of Tutankhamun,” Reeves told The Guardian.

Reeves made a splash within the Egyptological community back in 2015 when he proposed that high-definition images showed there were two sealed rooms behind the north and west walls of Tutankhamun’s burial chamber in the Valley of the Kings. Adding to the intrigue, Reeves suggested these sealed rooms were none other than the very burial chamber of Queen Nefertiti, the wife and possible co-regent of Pharaoh Akhenaten.

This theory could also help explain why Tutankhamun’s tomb was so small for a pharaoh, consisting of just four small chambers. According to Reeves’s theory, insufficient burial plans had been made for the young Tutankhamun, who died under mysterious circumstances at age 19 (c. 1324 BCE). Thus, upon his death, Tut’s body was moved into the forechambers of Queen Nefertiti’s tomb, which at that point had been occupied for less than a decade. To do this, the builders constructed a blocking wall between the tomb of Nefertiti and the newly made tomb of Tutankhamun. These blocking walls were then painted over and earlier images showing Nefertiti were changed to depict Tutankhamun.

Inside Tutankhamun’s tomb. Courtesy EditorfromMars, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

The sudden burial of Tutankhamun could also be a reason for the large percentage of reused objects within Tutankhamun’s tomb. According to Reeves, as much as 80 percent of the finds in the tomb were taken from previous burials, including those of his father Akhenaten and possibly Nefertiti herself.

Following Reeves’s proposal and some preliminary examinations, the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities carried out a series of radar scans on the tomb to learn if the walls were indeed only separators between the two tombs. While the first scan came back positive, the second scan showed only bedrock. The third scan seemed to be the nail in the coffin in Reeves’s theory, as it too came back negative. The new evidence from Reeves, however, may spur new investigations.

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