Philistine Pottery. These pottery pieces from Ashkelon bear early Philistine decorations. Photo: © The Leon Levy Expedition to Ashkelon.

The Philistines are best known from the Bible as the Israelites’ enemies, but they were much more than that. Recent archaeological discoveries help inform our understanding of their culture, economy, and even origins. In the Spring 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review, Daniel M. Master of Wheaton College looks at the biblical and archaeological evidence for the Philistines’ roots in “Piece by Piece: Exploring the Origins of the Philistines.”

Who Were the Philistines?

In the Bible, the Philistines are remembered as an uncircumcised people with advanced technology and a formidable military (Judges 14:3; 1 Samuel 13:19–20; Exodus 13:17). The Philistines frequently encroached on Israelite territory, which led to some battles, including the famous clash between David, the Israelite, and Goliath, the Philistine (1 Samuel 17). They were condemned for being idol worshipers (1 Samuel 5:1–5) and soothsayers (Isaiah 2:6). In short, the Philistines are portrayed quite negatively in the Bible.

They lived in the cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza—the heartland of ancient Philistia on the Mediterranean Sea’s southeastern shore. Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, and Gath have been excavated in recent decades. The findings from these cities show that the Philistines had distinct pottery, weapons, tools, and houses. They also ate pork and had vast trade networks.

Philistine culture flourished during the Iron Age (12th through sixth centuries B.C.E.). Similar to the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, the Philistines lost their autonomy toward the end of the Iron Age. They became subservient and paid tribute to the Assyrians, Egyptians, and then Babylonians, the great superpowers of the region who severely punished rebellion. For example, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed disloyal Ashkelon and Ekron and carried off many Philistines into exile.

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Where Did the Philistines Come From?

In his article, Daniel Master looks at archaeological and biblical evidence for the Philistines’ origins. He considers the accounts at Ramesses III’s mortuary temple at Medinet Habu. In the 12th century B.C.E., during the reign of Ramesses III, a confederation of tribes from the “islands” of the “northern countries” attacked Egypt—several times, both on sea and land. The Peleset, whom scholars connect with the Philistines, was named as one of these tribes.

Battle Ships. This drawing of a relief at Medinet Habu shows a sea battle between the Egyptians and people from the “islands,” who had invaded Egypt in the 12th century B.C.E. Photo: Public Domain.

On the way to Egypt, the confederation had traveled through the eastern Mediterranean and destroyed numerous cities, including Ugarit on the Syrian coast. Ammurapi, the last king of Ugarit, had written to surrounding kingdoms for help, when the “seven ships of the enemy” had arrived to ransack his kingdom. By the time help had come, though, it was too late: Ugarit lay in ruins.

Egypt defeated the confederation, as recorded on one of the temple walls at Medinet Habu. A relief from that temple also depicts a sea battle between the island tribes and the Egyptians. In it, the islanders wear distinct headdresses, which clearly set them apart from the Egyptians. After being defeated, some of these tribes settled on the southern coast of Canaan—in what would become the land of the Philistines. Egyptian sources, thus, seem to record a migration of people from the “islands” to Philistia.

Philistine Portrait? A confederation of island tribes, including the Peleset (Philistines), attacked Egypt in the 12th century B.C.E. This relief from Medinet Habu records a sea battle between the two forces. Photo: Olaf Tausch, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Master also examines the evidence for Philistine origins in the Bible. The biblical authors remembered the Philistines as coming from a foreign land, from “Caphtor” (Genesis 10:14; Deuteronomy 2:23; 1 Chronicles 1:12; Amos 9:7; Jeremiah 47:4). Scholars have long drawn a connection between Caphtor and Crete. This is largely based on Egyptian inscriptions and paintings of “Keftiu” from the 15th and 14th centuries B.C.E., wherein the Keftiu are linked to the Minoan civilization, which was centered on Crete.

Migration Map. Who were the Philistines, and where did they come from? New archaeological evidence suggests that many of the Philistines originally came from Crete, called “Caphtor” in the Bible. Map: © Biblical Archaeology Society.

Excavations have shown that the Philistines had a distinct assemblage of artifacts. Master notes parallels between some early Philistine objects, especially from the 12th and 11th centuries B.C.E., and Aegean and Cypriot artifacts. Elements of Philistine material culture, then, also hint at an Aegean or Mediterranean origin for the Philistines.

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New evidence from Ashkelon further supports this connection. The Leon Levy Expedition excavated at Ashkelon from 1985–2016 under the direction of the late Lawrence Stager at Harvard University; for the last decade, Daniel Master co-directed excavations. They found some infant burials from the 12th century B.C.E., as well as a Philistine cemetery with burials from the 11th through eighth centuries B.C.E. Teaming up with scientists at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, they were able to analyze DNA from seven of these individuals. When they looked at the 12th-century infants’ DNA, they discovered that the infants had some European ancestry. Crete proved to be one of the best matches for the infants’ heritage—when considering all of their genetic material. Yet other places in the western Mediterranean, such as Iberia, also provided a good match.

Interestingly, in the later individuals from Ashkelon’s cemetery, this European ancestry had been so diluted to barely register. Master explains that, by the tenth century B.C.E., enough intermarriage had taken place between the Philistines and the local Levantine population that the Philistines looked a lot like their neighbors:

While there was some evidence of the same Western European Hunter-Gatherer genetic input, for all statistical purposes, it could not be identified for certain. The best models showed that these people [the tenth- and ninth-century individuals buried in Ashkelon’s cemetery] were descendants of both the 12th-century inhabitants and the earlier Bronze Age inhabitants. It appears from these results that so much intermarriage had taken place between the original immigrants and the people around them that the genetic makeup of Ashkelon’s inhabitants had lost its immigrant distinctiveness.

Yet Master clarifies that, at this point in history, the Philistines still thought of themselves as distinct, as evident in a seventh-century inscription from the Philistine city of Ekron. The inscription names Ekron’s king as Ikausu, which means “Achaean” or “Greek.” The name Ikausu (or Achish) also appears in 1 Samuel 21:10 as Gath’s king.

The Philistines remembered their foreign origins

Master concludes that the new DNA evidence, coupled with the biblical and archaeological testimonies, suggests that the Philistines originated in Crete. That is not to say that the Philistines were a homogenous group, all coming from the Aegean world, but it seems that many Philistines did indeed migrate from there, bringing with them vestiges of Minoan culture. Learn more about this ancient people in Daniel M. Master’s article “Piece by Piece: Exploring the Origins of the Philistines,” published in the Spring 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

Subscribers: Read the full article “Piece by Piece: Exploring the Origins of the Philistines” by Daniel M. Master in the Spring 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

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This article first appeared in Bible History Daily on March 23, 2022.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

Illuminating the Philistines’ Origins

Who Were the Philistines?

The Philistines Are Coming!

The “Philistines” to the North

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

The Philistines

Piece by Piece: Exploring the Origins of the Philistines

What We Know About the Philistines

The Other “Philistines”

Exploring Philistine Origins on the Island of Cyprus

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View of the valley known as the Valley of Rephaim today. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible, 2 Samuel.

Mentioned in connection with King David’s war against the Philistines (2 Samuel 5:17-25), the Valley of Rephaim is one of many biblical locations whose exact location is less than certain. Although the valley has traditionally been located near Jerusalem, Sabine Kleinman, an archaeologist at Tel Aviv University, has a new theory. Publishing in the Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, Kleiman argues that the Valley of Rephaim was located much farther south, very close to another famous biblical valley, the Valley of Elah.

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Defeating Rapha

According to the Bible, after David was anointed king, the Philistines launched an attack, taking up position in the Valley of Rephaim. Based largely on the fact that this story comes immediately after David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Samuel 5), most scholars have assumed the valley was nearby. Indeed, a valley by this name is located just a few miles outside Jerusalem, on the road to Tel Aviv. However, even since the earliest efforts to compile geographic lists of biblical places, the accepted location of this valley has frequently changed.

According to Kleiman, the valley’s association with Jerusalem has led scholars to overlook clues within the biblical text itself, particularly references to other geographic markers, such as Geba and the stronghold, Baal-Perazim. Although the location of these places is sometimes debated, there are compelling arguments for placing them not near Jerusalem, but farther south, near the Valley of Elah. The stronghold, for instance, is frequently associated with the site of Adullam, where David camped when he fled from Achish of Gath, and which features in several other biblical stories. Of particular interest is 2 Samuel 23 13–17, where the Philistines are yet again encamped in the Valley of Rephaim. This time, however, the stronghold to which David goes is explicitly mentioned as being near Adullam.

Map of the region surrounding the proposed Valley of Rephaim. Courtesy A. Kleiman and Sabine Kleiman.

Baal-Perazim, associated in the Bible with a source of water, may be identified with a spring near Adullam named ‘Ain Faris, a possible corruption of the name Perazim. Interestingly, a third site in the area, Khirbat ‘Id el-Ma, could be a corruption of the Hebrew word for “stronghold” (metzudah). This site is also features a large, fortified structure that dates to around the time of David.

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However, locating the Valley of Rephaim in this area does more than just agree with the other geographic markers in the Bible. According to Kleiman, it may explain the very origins of the valley’s name. When David reigned during the tenth century BCE, the city of Gath was one of the most powerful Philistine cities. It controlled a significant portion of the lowlands, particularly the area nearest to the events recorded in 2 Samuel 5 and 23. As recorded in 2 Samuel 21:15–22, Gath was home to the sons of Rapha. Although the sons of Rapha were remembered as giants, excavations at the site of Gath (Tell es-Safi) have uncovered an inscription and several stamp seal impressions that refer to the family of Rapha. Based on the style of the impressions, it is evident that the family of Rapha was a highly esteemed family within the city. As laid out by Kleiman, it is plausible that the biblical “sons of Rapha” can be associated with the family of Rapha known from Gath. Whether they were giants or not is another question. Regardless, as Gath held control over much of the area, the name of the valley may well originate with this family.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

Who Were the Philistines?

The Riddle of the Rephaim

The Destruction of Philistine Gath

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

World Wonders: The Valley of Elah

Kings Og’s Iron Bed

Gath of the Philistines: A New View of Ancient Israel’s Archenemy

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Aerial view of Khirbet_a-Ra‘i
Photo by Emil Ajem, Israel Antiquities Authority

Researchers announced their belief that they may have uncovered the biblical town of Ziklag. Located between Kiryat Gat and Lachish in southern Israel, Khirbet a-Ra‘i has been the site of excavations since 2015. Many of the artifacts discovered show signs of being from the Philistine culture. The biblical town of Ziklag is noted in the Books of Joshua and Samuel as a Philistine town near the city of Gath (for which Kiryat Gat is named). Radiocarbon dating from the hilltop site indicates the settlement was from the early 10th century B.C.E., the time period associated with King David.

Photo by Kristina Donnally,
BAS Dig Scholarship recipient 2019

The connection to Ziklag was announced by the team of researchers, led by the Israel Antiquities Authority, as well as Macquarie University of Sydney Australia, and Hebrew University. The lead archaeologists Yoseph Garfinkel, Saar Ganor, Kyle Keimer, and Gil Davis believe Khirbet a-Ra‘i is the biblical town of Ziklag. Not all archaeologists are convinced, however; the indicators could be more coincidental than proof. Also, this site may not be far enough south to align with every biblical reference.

In the biblical telling, David fled from King Saul’s threat on his life and asked King Achish of Gath for asylum. Achish granted Ziklag to the future King David. David built his resources and even raided neighboring peoples from Ziklag. While he was away with his forces, Ziklag was raided and burned by the Amalekites, who took captive all that stayed behind. David’s army chased them down, and rescued all the captives and treasure from the Amalekites. In the Book of Samuel this was referred to as “David’s Spoil”.

Ziklag remained a part of King David’s realm when he became King of Judah and resided in Hebron. Ziklag was later granted to the Simeonites, then remained a part of Judah under the Divided Monarchy. It was even a location where some Hebrews may have returned after the Babylonian exile. Yet, it has been lost to history for thousands of years.

Photo by Kristina Donnally, BAS Dig Scholarship recipient 2019

David sent some of his spoil to nearby Judean elders, in the southern mountains and the Negev, providing some clues as to its location. Despite that, and the reference to biblical Gath, narrowing down an exact location has eluded archaeologists, and has long been a source of dispute. At least a dozen different locations have been proposed as ancient Ziklag. It remains to be seen if this latest discovery, at Khirbet a-Ra‘i, will finally put the debate to rest.

Photo by Kristina Donnally,
BAS Dig Scholarship recipient 2019

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

Excavating Philistine Gath: Have We Found Goliath’s Hometown?

An Ending and a Beginning: Why we’re leaving Qeiyafa and going to Lachish

Newly Discovered: A Fortified City from King David’s Time

Strata: Exhibit Watch: Ashkelon Through the Ages

A version of this post originally appeared in Bible History Daily in July 2019

The post Biblical Town of Ziklag May Have Been Discovered appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Inspiration (1927) by Alphonse Osbert, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Modern notions of inspiration often evoke images of writers, artists, and musicians who experience moments when their creative powers are at their zenith. The artist appears to be operating beyond normal human capacities in terms of uniqueness, innovation, and spontaneity. Modern concepts of inspiration, however, are sometimes anachronistically applied to ancient texts.

The concept of biblical inspiration is classically captured in 2 Timothy 3:16: “All scripture is inspired by God (theopneustos) and is useful for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness, so that everyone who belongs to God may be proficient, equipped for every good work.” Yet this verse also raises some questions. What does “inspired by God” mean, and what did it entail? How did ancient writers and readers understand it?

“Inspired by God” is one translation of the Greek word theopneustos, which is a compound word that uses theos (“God”) and pneuma (“breath” or “spirit”). The word is variously translated as “inspired by God” or “God-breathed.” Both translations attempt to render a distinctive quality of certain writings and indicate some sort of divine attribute.

Although the precise meaning of theopneustos is not explained elsewhere (indeed, the word only occurs in 2 Timothy 3:16), some biblical texts and other ancient writings offer descriptions of inspiration which allow insight into the many ways it was understood.

The Hebrew Bible does not use a specific word for inspiration, but instances of prophecy are later associated with it.^[1] Prophets are described as having an encounter with the spirit (ruah) which enables them to speak the words of God (e.g., Numbers 11:25, 29; 1 Samuel 10:5–6). The Hebrew word for spirit (ruah) can also mean “breath” and indicates that which enters the human to incite prophecy. One who speaks “by the spirit” speaks the words of God.

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The early Greek poet Hesiod describes elements of inspiration and its effects on poets and song writers:

So spoke great Zeus’ ready-speaking daughters … and they breathed a divine voice into me, so that I might glorify what will be and what was before, and they commanded me to sing of the race of the blessed ones who always are, but always to sing of themselves first and last.
(Theogony 31)

Hesiod’s description of inspiration connects the human to the divine. The daughters of Zeus (Muses) inspire him by breathing a divine voice into him, which enables him to sing about the future and past. The Muses’ act of breathing into (empneo) can also mean “inspire,” and the divine voice (aude thespis) can be translated as a “word from god,” which indicates the divine nature of his speech. Hesiod’s description of inspiration is akin to prophets who received God’s words through the spirit.

According to the Greek philosopher Plato, inspiration took place when humans were possessed by a divine entity, had a divine word breathed into them,^[2] and entered a frenzied state:

The third kind of possession and madness comes from the Muses, seizing a delicate, virginal soul, rousing and exciting it to Bacchic frenzy in lyric and other forms of poetry, and by embellishing countless deeds of men of old it educates their successors.
(Phaedrus 245a)

For Plato, the process of inspiration first involves the poet being possessed and inspired by a divine being. The inspiration is a divine filling (entheos) and a “frenzied” state. The Greek word for frenzy is mania, which is where the modern word maniac comes from (but often with a negative connotation). Plato explains how the poet’s mania is like what the Bacchus undergoes. The Bacchi, initiates of the cult of Dionysius (god of wine and ecstasy), were known for shouting during their manic state.^[3]

The most significant part of mania was that the Bacchus and poet were out of their minds. In this state, the poet is possessed by the divine and thereby able to create inspired works that are superior to those composed using their own faculties. This extends not only to poets, but also to prophetic characters, such as the Delphic oracle. For Plato, mania is an elevated state above normal human cognition and viewed as a gift from god.

Inspiration in Hesiod and Plato is also similar to prophecy. For the combined descriptions of Plato and Hesiod, the writer is possessed, inspired, and in a state of mania. Each of these has a corollary in biblical literature. Possession by the spirit of God and prophetic utterance are mentioned with Saul, the first king of Israel (1 Samuel 10:9–12). Saul meets a band of prophets, is possessed by the spirit of God, and immediately begins to prophesy.

Hesiod’s depiction of a divine voice being breathed into the poet is close to how prophets, such as Balaam and Jeremiah, have a word put into their mouths by Yahweh (Numbers 23:5; Jeremiah 1:9). The poet and prophet are given a message to proclaim by a divine agent (Muse and Yahweh). The inspiration or filling of the poet with the divine is comparable to the spirit of God coming upon someone to induce prophecy.

Plato’s description of mania corresponds to biblical prophecy. Prophets, such as Ezekiel, were expected to have ecstatic moments (e.g., dreams and visions) as part of receiving divine revelation (Numbers 12:6; Ezekiel 37:1).

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What about the connection to inspired writing? For Hesiod and Plato, the poet’s divine utterance leads to inspired written works. David and Jeremiah are two biblical examples of divine words becoming “inspired” texts. Jeremiah speaks the words of God by the spirit, while Baruch transcribes them onto a scroll (Jeremiah 36:4; 45:1). His recorded prophecy (words of God) equates to inspired writing (scripture). Hesiod’s description of inspiration, as a poet and writer, is analogous to David as a prophet and psalmist. David is a prophet who has the capacity to speak by the spirit of the Lord and even has God’s words on his tongue (2 Samuel 23:1–2; Acts 2:29–30). His divine words, like Hesiod’s, are also recorded. Jesus, in the Gospel of Mark, quotes Psalm 110:1 and attributes its wording to David speaking by the Holy Spirit (Mark 12:36). David, Hesiod, and Jeremiah speak by the spirit, and records of their speech are considered inspired because they contain divine words.

The Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria merges the Hebrew and Greek conceptions of inspiration with more precision in his Life of Moses and Who Is Heir? He recounts how Moses was inspired to speak to the Israelites before crossing the Red Sea (Exodus 14). He is inspired by God (entheos) and is breathed on by the spirit; he then speaks divine words and begins to prophesy (Moses 2.175). The combination of being breathed over by the spirit and speaking divine words (thespizo) evokes Hesiod’s description of breathing a divine voice into the poet.

Philo also explains how prophets, such as Noah and Abraham, enter a trance (ecstasis), are filled with the divine (entheos), are possessed, and then experience a state of mania (Heir 259–264). He adds that the prophet’s mind (nous) leaves as the divine spirit (theios pneuma) enters and controls his vocal cords and mouth (Heir 265–266). The divine spirit (theios pneuma) entering the prophet is the closest to theopneustos in 2 Timothy 3:16.

Hesiod, Plato, and Philo’s descriptions of inspiration demonstrate the numerous ways this concept circulated in antiquity. Theopneustos (“God-breathed”) in 2 Timothy 3:16 may be best understood in this historical context, as a conflation of the longer and more explicit descriptions of inspiration in Greek writings. This conflated rendering could convey to the audience that each writing contains the prophetic words of someone who was filled with the divine spirit, without needing to elaborate on the encounter.

Rodney Caruthers II is Assistant Professor of New Testament at Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary. He studies ancient Jewish texts written in Greek.

Notes:

[1] Hebrew words such as ruah and neshamah are used to refer to God’s spirit or breath.

[2] For more on Plato’s description of inspiration, see Ion 533e–534b.

[3] Prophetic moments were sometimes accompanied by musical instruments, which implies a more demonstrative experience (e.g., 1 Samuel 10:5).

Related reading in Bible History Daily:

Temple of Zeus Uncovered in Egyptian Sinai

The Oracle of Delphi—Was She Really Stoned?

When Did Saul Become Paul?

Who Is Balaam Son of Beor? Part One

Who Is Balaam Son of Beor? Part Two

Jeremiah, Prophet of the Bible, Brought Back to Life

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library:

Spirituality in the Desert: Judean Wilderness Monasteries
The Prophets as Revolutionaries: A Sociopolitical Analysis
Searching for Saul
Fragments from the Book of Balaam Found at Deir Alla
Jeremiah’s Scribe and Confidant Speaks from a Hoard of Clay Bullae
Unlocking the Poetry of Love in the Song of Songs
Noah and the Genesis Flood

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How big was King David’s Judah? Sites like Khirbet Qeiyafa may hold the answer. Courtesy Yosef Garfinkel

Just how big was King David’s Judah? Numerous proposals have been put forward, but it remains a divisive question for archaeologists and biblical scholars alike. Now, Yosef Garfinkel, a prominent archaeologist from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, has proposed another possible answer to the question. Publishing in the Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology, Garfinkel suggests that renewed analysis of archaeological remains from numerous sites in the Judean hill country demonstrates a small but powerful kingdom in the time of King David.

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Reexamining the Evidence of King David’s Judah

Examining past excavations carried out by his own teams and others, Garfinkel suggests that in the early Iron Age IIA (c. 1000–930 BCE)—around the time of King David and his son Solomon—Judah encompassed only a small territory that extended no more than a day’s walk from Jerusalem. Yet, by the middle of the Iron Age IIA (c. 930–860 BCE), during the time of Rehoboam and his successors, the kingdom had grown to include a much larger section of the agriculturally important Shephelah region, including the city of Lachish. This would place the expansion of the Kingdom of Judah a century earlier than many scholars previously thought.

In identifying the expansion of Judah, the study compared the city planning of five archaeological sites that may have been fortified during this period. The five sites—Khirbet Qeiyafa, Khirbet ed-Dawwara, Lachish, Beth Shemesh, and Tell en-Nasbeh—all have similar city plans, including an outer wall, abutting dwellings, and interior circuit road. Four of these sites feature a casemate (hollow) wall and have provided either radiocarbon or ceramic evidence that date the remains to the early to mid-tenth century. Lachish, which has a solid wall, is dated slightly later, to the mid-Iron Age IIA.

While Garfinkel’s analysis does not align perfectly with the biblical description, it does present the Kingdom of Judah, at least during its early years, as a far more powerful and developed political entity than many scholars have proposed. This builds on Garfinkel’s previous studies that have examined the origins of the Judahite kingdom.

However, the question of King David’s Judah remains open, as not all archaeologists are convinced by Garfinkel’s analysis. “I think it’s an oversimplification and he is flattening the details,” said Aren Maeir, professor of archaeology at Bar-Ilan University. “There’s a lot of small details I don’t agree with, and there are generalizations over a wide period that are problematic.”

Indeed, the dating and interpretation Garfinkel gives for several of the sites presented in the study differ from those of the archaeologists who originally excavated them. “Once you start building a whole scenario of the size of the kingdom at various points, and they’re based on not clearly proved suppositions, you’re building a house of cards,” said Maeir.

Another issue that has proven a problem for many archaeological reconstructions of the early days of Judah is the lack of conclusive evidence from the kingdom’s capital, Jerusalem. After thousands of years of continuous habitation and construction, very little of the ancient city has been discovered, leading to competing theories about the size, importance, and even precise location of the city. Other theories on the nature and size of King David’s kingdom have suggested that the constant quest for archaeological evidence may even be misguided, instead emphasizing the kingdom’s possible nomadic and therefore archaeological invisible character.

Read more in Bible History Daily:

King David’s Judah Found?

Ancient Jerusalem—Not Where We Thought?

All-access members, read more in the BAS Library:

David and Solomon’s Invisible Kingdom

The ‘Daughters of Judah’ Are Really Rural Satellites of an Urban Center 

Mizpah: Newly Discovered Stratum Reveals Judah’s Other Capital 

Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

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Michelangelo’s David (1504) carrying a sling over his shoulder.
Photo: George M. Groutas, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

“David put his hand in his bag, took out a stone, slung it, and struck the Philistine on his forehead; the stone sank into his forehead, and he fell face down on the ground” (1 Samuel 17:49). The biblical story of a lowly shepherd with no military training or experience and yet capable of defeating and killing a mighty warrior serves as a metaphor for facing and overcoming seemingly impossible odds.

In European art, David is often portrayed as carrying a sling, even when it is the only thing he has, as demonstrated by Michelangelo’s masterpiece—the nude statue of David outside the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. The larger-than-life marble hero carries a sling over his left shoulder while holding a stone in his right hand.

How realistic is the biblical narrative? How were slings made in antiquity? What ammunition did they use? And what do we know about the real-life capabilities of slings and their usefulness in combat?

Boyd Seevers and Victoria Parrott answer these questions in their article “Taking a Sling: How David Defeated Goliath,” published in the Fall 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review. They provide a technical description of the weapon and discuss the different techniques. Although slings were very common across the ancient world, hardly any examples have survived in the archaeological record. Luckily, ancient artistic representations offer some clues.

Egyptian slingers attacking the Sea Peoples from the crow’s nests of their ships, around 1200 BCE.
Photo: Alexander Schick/Bibelausstellung.de

Possibly the oldest depiction of slings comes from the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu (across the Nile from Luxor), where large wall reliefs celebrate the pharaoh’s deeds, including the battles against the coalition of the so-called Sea Peoples, who invaded Egypt’s Mediterranean coast in about 1190 BCE. A section of the northern outer wall of the temple shows the Egyptian navy engaged with the invaders, who are identified by their characteristic feathered headdresses. Atop every Egyptian ship’s mast, in the crow’s nest, is an Egyptian slinger launching projectiles at the enemy.

Assyrian slingers and archers during the siege of Lachish in 701 BCE.
Photo: Zunkir, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

As for slinging techniques, “some pictures appear to show slingers whirling the sling horizontally over their heads, as depicted in an early 12th-century BCE relief from the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu. By contrast, other pictures seem to show slingers whirling their slings vertically at their sides,” write Seevers and Parrott. The latter technique is well illustrated in the gypsum reliefs from the Southwest Palace of the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. Celebrating Sennacherib’s military exploits, some of the reliefs show Assyrian slingers among the Assyrian infantry during Sennacherib’s 701 BCE siege of the fortified Judahite city of Lachish. It seems that at least six different techniques can be used to launch stones from a sling.

Lead pellets from Cyprus.
Photo: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; The Cesnola Collection, Purchased by subscription, 1874–76

Like in the biblical story of David and Goliath, the most common and most readily available type of projectile was a simple fieldstone or a pebble collected from a riverbed. But because fieldstones tend to be irregular in shape, which causes the projectile to curve during flight, people often shaped sling ammunition. “Shaped, spherical sling stones first appear in the Early Bronze Age (c. 3300–2000 BCE). In Israel, these were typically fashioned from locally available flint or limestone, usually to a size of 2–3 inches in diameter (about the size of a plum or baseball). During the later Hellenistic and Roman periods, sling pellets were also molded from lead.” This ammunition was usually shaped like an almond, as demonstrated by the examples from Cyprus shown here. These projectiles often featured symbols or inscriptions that mocked or taunted the enemy with phrases like “Take that!” or “for Pompey’s backside.” The advantage of such ammunition was its regular size, shape, and weight.

We don’t need to go any further than the story of David and Goliath to appreciate the effectiveness of the ancient sling. Although concise, the biblical account accurately reports that the throw’s force was such that “the stone sank into [Goliath’s] forehead.” The impact did not kill Goliath immediately (David actually finished off the Philistine giant with his own sword) but it did incapacitate him, and the internal damage caused by the blow would have caused the giant’s death eventually.

The biblical story of David and Goliath depicted on a Byzantine silver plate.
Photo: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917

The famous silver plate discovered in 1902 at Karavas, Cyprus, illustrates the biblical story, starting with the initial encounter between David and Goliath in the Valley of Elah (top register), where the sitting figure in the middle represents the river from which David collected his stones. In the center, both combatants engage using their respective weapons, followed by their respective armies. The bottom register shows David decapitating Goliath, while his sling and remaining three stones lay on the ground behind him. Manufactured sometime around 620 CE, the plate is now on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

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Greek and Roman authors attest to the capabilities of slingers as part of ancient armies. From their witnesses and modern testing, it appears that “practiced slingers could have had military effectiveness as far away as 200–400 yards,” conclude Seevers and Parrott. Slings could be highly accurate and potentially lethal at shorter distances (up to 70 yards) and also allowed slingers the advantage of maintaining a safe distance from infantrymen armed with shorter-range weapons like the javelin. And that is how the lowly, untrained shepherd was able to defeat the seasoned and more heavily armed Philistine warrior.

To further explore the capabilities of ancient slingers and how their humble weapons compared to other ancient weaponry, read Boyd Seevers and Victoria Parrott’s article “Taking a Sling: How David Defeated Goliath,” published in the Fall 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

——————Subscribers: Read the full article “Taking a Sling: How David Defeated Goliath,” by Boyd Seevers and Victoria Parrott, in the Fall 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

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Read more in Bible History Daily:

From the Days of King David

Giant Goliath Slept Here

Iron Age Gate and Fortifications Uncovered at Philistine Gath

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Excavating Philistine Gath: Have We Found Goliath’s Hometown?

The Saga of the Goliath Family—As Revealed in Their Newly Discovered 2,000-Year-Old Tomb

The David and Goliath Saga

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The post Bringing a Slingshot to a Swordfight appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

View of Mt. Adir in the Upper Galilee. Credit: Avi1111 Dr. Avishai Teicher, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

A lonely and little-known hilltop fortress in northern Galilee offers archaeologists a unique opportunity to gaze into the origins of ancient Israel. First excavated in the mid-1970s, the fortress is located on Mt. Adir, a region that historically was sparsely populated and a challenge for states and empires to control. Yet during the early Iron Age (twelfth–ninth centuries B.C.E.), Adir was the location of a major fortress, which scholars have associated with the Phoenicians, the United Monarchy of David and Solomon, or Israel’s Omride dynasty. However, a study published in Archaeological and Anthropological Science suggests that this fortress was instead the base of a small upstart chiefdom that researchers believe might provide valuable insights into the origins of ancient Israel.

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The Iron Age I (c. 1200–1000 B.C.E.) has often been described as a “dark age.” With the Bronze Age collapse around 1200 B.C.E., many of the previously powerful kingdoms and empires either completely vanished or retreated to their traditional borders. Yet, this period also witnessed a large increase in settlements in the mountainous Upper Galilee, possibly fueled by immigrants and refugees fleeing the weakened and destroyed Canaanite city-states. This was the period during which the hilltop fortress of Mt. Adir was established. Despite past suggestions that Adir was a small outpost of a larger political force, such as Phoenicia or Israel, the recent study has shown this to be unlikely.

Instead, they argue that the vacuum left behind by the older regional powers paved the way for a local chieftain to establish political control over this isolated region. This likewise helps contextualize the origins of ancient Israel and the rise of several other kingdoms, such as Aram-Damascus in the north, the kingdom of Geshur around the Sea of Galilee, and the brief dynasty of King Saul in the hill country of Benjamin. It was not long, however, before these kingdoms began to compete with one another and larger empires, such as the Assyrians, once again returned to the area.

The Archaeology of the Mt. Adir Fortress

The site of Mt. Adir was first excavated in 1975 by the Israel Department of Antiquities (now the Israel Antiquities Authority). The initial excavations revealed the remnants of a large fortress, commanding an impressive view of the surrounding area. The fortress, which was protected by a casemate wall, covered an area of roughly 27,000 square feet. The original excavations dated the fortress from the eleventh to ninth centuries, generally coinciding with the very beginning of ancient Israel. This, in turn, led to a wide array of interpretations of the site, most of which could not be confirmed because of a fire that destroyed the excavation’s storehouse and records. Thus, in 2019, a team from Kinneret College in Israel returned to Mt. Adir to reexamine the site. Their excavation was able to securely date the site to the Iron Age IB (c. 1100–1000 B.C.E.), a century before the rise of Israel’s United Monarchy.

In addition, the site’s pottery showed that while several luxury ceramics were imported from the Phoenician coast, the majority of the pottery—especially cookware and storage jars—was locally made. The study concluded, therefore, that although the fortress had trade relations with Phoenicia, it was almost surely the base of a local chief whose political power did not extend far beyond the site’s immediate agricultural hinterland. Although this situation would have been out of place in preceding or subsequent periods, it fits in perfectly with the highly local forms of authority that characterized the Iron Age I. However, as mentioned by the researchers, “It seems that this spell of independent power was fleeting. Maybe not even enough for our warlord to bequeath it to his heirs.” Thus, within about a century, the fortress was abandoned and left largely untouched until modern times.

Read more in Biblical Archaeology Daily:

Daily Life in Ancient Israel

Judean Refugees in Galilee?

Who Were the Phoenicians?

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First Person: Did the Kingdoms of Saul, David and Solomon Actually Exist?

Archaeological Views: Carbon 14—The Solution to Dating David and Solomon?

Biblical Views: How a People Forms

The post A Hilltop Fortress and the Origins of Ancient Israel appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Aerial photo of Tel Be’er Sheva. Credit: Madain Project.

Known today as Tel Be’er Sheva, biblical Be’er Sheva sits in the northern Negev Desert, a few miles away from the modern city of the same name. Although far from the powerful cities of Jerusalem and Lachish, Be’er Sheva played an important role in the biblical narrative, especially the stories from the time of the Patriarchs. Be’er Sheva is mentioned 33 times in the Hebrew Bible. As told in Genesis, Be’er Sheva was home to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It was there that Abraham formed a covenant with King Abimelech (Genesis 21:32) and also where both Isaac and Jacob spoke to God (Genesis 26:23–24; 46:1–4). Tel Be’er Sheva also played an important role in the Judahite state under David and his descendants. It functioned as the southern border of Judah (Judges 20:1) and was an important administrative center in the Negev. Excavations have uncovered numerous fascinating finds at Tel Be’er Sheva, including the Iron Age city of the Davidic monarchy and a remarkable horned altar, nearly identical to the Israelite altars often mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Exodus 30:2). With its many biblical connections, Tel Be’er Sheva is certainly one of the most interesting biblical sites in the whole Negev.

View of the southeastern side of Tel Be’er Sheva, including the four-chamber gate, city square, governor’s palace, and more.
Credit: Photo Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Excavations were carried out at Tel Be’er Sheva from 1969 to 1976 by Tel Aviv University under the direction of Yohanan Aharoni and Ze’ev Herzog. The excavation uncovered an incredibly well-constructed and planned Iron Age city. The earliest definitive strata uncovered at Tel Be’er Sheva date no earlier than the Iron Age I (c. 1200–1000 B.C.E.), hundreds of years after the period of the Patriarchs. Numerous suggestions have been presented as to how to explain this lack of evidence of earlier settlement. Given that the Iron Age city was constructed atop the natural bedrock, it may be that the city’s construction eradicated any earlier remains. A few finds from the Chalcolithic Period (c. 4300–3300 B.C.E.) have been found, although no architectural features were discovered, possibly due to the later stages of development.

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Iron Age Fortifications at Tel Be’er Sheva

Wall of the outer gate of Tel Be’er Sheva.
Credit: Photo Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Tel Be’er Sheva was only a small rural settlement in the early Iron Age, reaching a population of around 100 people during the tenth century. Ze’ev Herzog suggested in “Beer-sheba of the Patriarchs” in the November/December 1980 Issue of Biblical Archaeology Review that Saul likely built up the town during his war with the Amalekites (1 Samuel 15). At the very end of the tenth century, or early in the ninth century, a concerted effort was made to establish the settlement as a major city. At this time, a large, 13-feet thick wall was built around the tell, as well as a defensive glacis. This would likely have been after the fall of the United Monarchy, as there are no archaeological or literary signs that Be’er Sheva fell victim to <Shishak’s famous campaign

The reconstructed remains of the four-chamber gate at Tel Be’er Sheva.
Credit: Photo Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

In the eighth century, following a destruction possibly caused by the earthquake mentioned in Amos 1:1, the city’s solid wall was replaced with a casemate wall. This new wall included an elaborate four-chamber gate.

Close look at the interior of Tel Be’er Sheva’s four-chamber gate.
Credit: Photo Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Tel Be’er Sheva, Capital of the Negev

From the ninth century until its destruction by Sennacherib in 701 B.C.E., Be’er Sheva functioned as the main administrative center of the Negev Desert. Indeed, for much of this period, Be’er Sheva was the only major Judahite city in the Negev. In addition to a large administrative structure, dubbed the “Governor’s Palace,” three large storehouses were constructed next to the gate complex. The storehouse complex covers roughly 6,500 square feet, with each storehouse featuring two rows of stone pillars. Hundreds of vessels were uncovered in the storehouses, showing their use in gathering oils, grains, and other products from the smaller villages of the region. These storehouses were possibly constructed by King Hezekiah in the late eighth century in preparation for Judah’s conflict with the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

One of three pillared storehouses constructed in Tel Be’er Sheva during the eighth century B.C.E.
Credit: Photo Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Close-up view of the pillar bases of one of Tel Be’er Sheva’s storehouses.
Credit: Photo Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

The Altar of Tel Be’er Sheva

Built into the wall of one of the storehouses was one of the most interesting finds discovered in Tel Be’er Sheva, a horned altar. The altar had been dismantled and used as building material in the wall of the storehouse. The altar was reconstructed at three cubits high (5.25 feet) and closely matches the description of such altars given in the Hebrew Bible (Exodus 30:2). The altar shows that the city once held a cultic structure, possibly dedicated to the Israelite God Yahweh, like the temple discovered in nearby Arad.

Reconstruction of the altar discovered at Tel Be’er Sheva, now held in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.
Credit: Photo courtesy Tamarah, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

The dismantling of the altar has been linked by many to the religious reforms of King Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:1–4). However, the exact nature of this altar and its connection to the biblical story have been hotly debated in the pages of Biblical Archaeology Review. The famous Israeli archaeologist Yigael Yadin suggested that the altar could be the one mentioned by name in 2 Kings 23:8 as having been destroyed not by Hezekiah, but by Josiah. This would completely alter the dating of the site, establishing its final destruction as coming by the hands of the Babylonians in 586 B.C.E. However, this view was strongly opposed by others, with most scholars now agreeing that the altar was destroyed in the time of Hezekiah.

The Intricate Planning of Tel Be’er Sheva

View of Tel Be’er Sheva with the four-chamber gate and the city square on the left and roads that show clear evidence of cityplanning.
Credit: Photo Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer. 

Be’er Sheva was also an incredibly well planned city. The city includes a belt of houses running along the casemate wall with a 6-foot-wide peripheral street running parallel to the walls. Additional streets radiated through the city in straight lines to provide a high degree of organization and movability. The city also included a covered drainage ditch, a large city square, and a complex water system. The excavators suggested that Be’er Sheva was built as a planned city, in which the earlier town was actively dismantled and the later Iron Age city constructed according to a preconceived plan at a single time.

The peripheral street, running parallel to the city walls.
Credit: Photo Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

As part of the city’s fortifications, a large and complex water system was also built into the hillside and was meant to provide water even in times of siege. The system included a 56-foot deep shaft and a large reservoir capable of holding 185,000 gallons of water.

Artist’s rendering of Tel Be’er Sheva’s water system, located at the site.
Credit: Photo Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

The descent into Tel Be’er Sheva’s water system, with a flight of stone steps along the side.
Credit: Photo Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Although no evidence from the period of the Patriarchs has been found at Tel Be’er Sheva, its exquisite construction—and remarkable modern reconstruction—make it one of the most interesting archaeological sites in Israel, and certainly a spectacular under-the-radar tourist spot.

Read more in Bible History Daily:

Jewish City Discovered Near Be’er Sheva

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library:

Horned Altar for Animal Sacrifice Unearthed at Beer-Sheva

Beer-Sheva Excavator Blasts Yadin—No Bama at Beer-Sheva

Yadin Answers Beer-Sheva Excavator—Reply to Rainey’s “No Bama at Beer-Sheva”

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The excavated remains of the rampart and gate at the site of Ashkelon on the southern coast of Israel. During the early Iron Age, Ashkelon was one of the five cities of the Philistines. Credit: Hanay, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

The Philistines, who enter the biblical scene around 1200–1000 B.C.E., are often thought of as a powerful invading force that ruthlessly subjugated the nascent Judahite kingdom. According to a new study published in the Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology by archaeologist Daniel Master of Wheaton College, however, both archaeological and biblical evidence indicate that the Philistines were more likely opportunistic raiders than a well-organized military force bent on conquest and occupation.

Excavations at the Philistine coastal city of Ashkelon have revealed that Philistine fortunes were quite bleak during the 11th century B.C.E., roughly corresponding to the period of the biblical Judges, when the Bible says the Philistines frequently attacked the Israelite tribes in the neighboring hill country. Instead, the archaeological remains of 11th-century Ashkelon indicate the Philistines were not nearly powerful enough to invade and conquer the hill country.

In addition, a close examination of the biblical accounts of Philistine incursions reveals them to be raiders, not conquerors. The Philistines and Judahites frequently fight in open territory, not in prolonged battles or sieges. Master also points to the Philistine attack on the town of Keilah in 1 Samuel 23:1–5, where “the attack is specifically on the threshing floors, not on the city itself, despite the fact that the city is so close to Philistia proper.” Finally, after losses, the Philistines retreat to their own territories along the coast rather than to fortified positions within Judah. Master argues, therefore, that both the archaeological and biblical evidence indicate that the early Philistines were not conquerors but rather brigands who aimed to extort and plunder the seasonal harvest of the Israelite tribes.

According to Master, the main impetus for the Philistine raids was likely the final withdrawal of the Egyptian empire from Canaan at the end of the 12th century B.C.E. The Egyptian withdrawal would have caused the collapse of many of the trade routes that formerly passed by the coastal city. Needing a new source of income, the Philistines turned towards the fertile highland, looking to plunder the poorly defended Israelite villages in the hill country. This situation did not last long, however, as towns and villages in the hill country soon fortified themselves against the Philistine threat. As Master argues, this may have been the very threat that forced a small clan from Bethlehem, under a leader named David, to occupy the fortified stronghold of Jerusalem.

Read more in BHD:

King David’s Palace at Khirbet Qeiyafa?

King David’s Palace and the Millo

The Royal Purple of David and Solomon

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The Philistines: Urban Invaders or Emergent Immigrants?

Members, read more in the BAS Library:

David and Solomon’s Jerusalem

The David and Goliath Saga

King David as Builder

The post Rethinking the Early Philistine Threat appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

The Israelites, too, had their own tales of giants, many of which were already ancient when the biblical stories were written down. The first explicit mention of giants in the Hebrew Bible is in the report of the 12 spies found in Numbers 13. It records that Hebron was home to three monstrous brothers (or tribes) called the children of Anak, whose size made the spies feel like grasshoppers. The text even claims they are descendants of the infamous Nephilim of Genesis 6.

In Deuteronomy 3:11, King Og’s bed is described as 9 cubits long and 4 cubits wide. This serves to illustrate how large Og—the last of the Rephaim—was thought to be. In this engraving, by German engraver and printmaker Johann Balthasar Probst, onlookers marvel at the site of Og’s gigantic bed. Public Domain.

Later, in the Book of Deuteronomy, even more giants are mentioned—the Rephaim and the Zamzummim—who once lived in the land of the Ammonites (Deuteronomy 2:20). In Genesis 14:7, these same giants are said to have lived in the land in the days of Abraham and Lot. The famous King Og of Bashan, who was among those defeated by the Israelites, was considered to be the last of the Rephaim. According to the Bible (Deuteronomy 3:11), Og’s legendary iron bed (which was roughly 14 feet long and 6 feet wide) could still be seen in the town of Rabbah.

The most famous biblical giant, however, was the Philistine warrior Goliath, who was slain by a young David in 1 Samuel 17. But he was not the last of his kind. According to 2 Samuel 21, more giant warriors fought for the Philistines.

David holds aloft the head of his slain enemy, Goliath, in this drawing by Gustave Doré. According to 1 Samuel 17, David defeats Goliath with a slingshot, then beheads him. Public Domain.

In this rich world of stories and folklore, it was only natural for people to look for evidence of giants in the world around them. In their article “Encounters with Fossil Giants” in the Fall 2021 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review, Steven Fine and Elisha Fine discuss examples from ancient history where individuals found what they thought were the bones of giants. Locals would often discover unusually large fossils and present them to visitors as the remains of famous or mythical giants.

Josephus, the celebrated Jewish historian, had his own encounter with giant remains outside Hebron, which he mentioned in Antiquities:

So they [the Israelite army] moved their camp to Hebron, took capture of that town and massacred all therein. There remained there a race of giants, who, by reason of their huge frames and figures in no way like the rest of mankind, were an amazing spectacle and a tale of terror to the ear. Their bones are shown to this day, bearing no resemblance to any that have come within men’s ken.

Josephus’s experience with giant remains was not unusual. Greeks and Romans discovered huge bones across the Mediterranean world, remains they often associated with giants from their own mythical past.

To discover more about ancient fossil remains and how people viewed them, read “Encounters with Fossil Giants” by Steven Fine and Elisha Fine, published in the Fall 2021 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

Members, read more in the BAS Library:

Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

Excavating Philistine Gath: Have We Found Goliath’s Hometown?

The Saga of the Goliath Family—As Revealed in Their Newly Discovered 2,000-Year-Old Tomb

The David and Goliath Saga

Giant Goliath Slept Here

The post On the Shoulders of Giants appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.