Philistine Pottery. These pottery pieces from Ashkelon bear early Philistine decorations. Photo: © The Leon Levy Expedition to Ashkelon.

The Philistines are best known from the Bible as the Israelites’ enemies, but they were much more than that. Recent archaeological discoveries help inform our understanding of their culture, economy, and even origins. In the Spring 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review, Daniel M. Master of Wheaton College looks at the biblical and archaeological evidence for the Philistines’ roots in “Piece by Piece: Exploring the Origins of the Philistines.”

Who Were the Philistines?

In the Bible, the Philistines are remembered as an uncircumcised people with advanced technology and a formidable military (Judges 14:3; 1 Samuel 13:19–20; Exodus 13:17). The Philistines frequently encroached on Israelite territory, which led to some battles, including the famous clash between David, the Israelite, and Goliath, the Philistine (1 Samuel 17). They were condemned for being idol worshipers (1 Samuel 5:1–5) and soothsayers (Isaiah 2:6). In short, the Philistines are portrayed quite negatively in the Bible.

They lived in the cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza—the heartland of ancient Philistia on the Mediterranean Sea’s southeastern shore. Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, and Gath have been excavated in recent decades. The findings from these cities show that the Philistines had distinct pottery, weapons, tools, and houses. They also ate pork and had vast trade networks.

Philistine culture flourished during the Iron Age (12th through sixth centuries B.C.E.). Similar to the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, the Philistines lost their autonomy toward the end of the Iron Age. They became subservient and paid tribute to the Assyrians, Egyptians, and then Babylonians, the great superpowers of the region who severely punished rebellion. For example, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed disloyal Ashkelon and Ekron and carried off many Philistines into exile.

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Where Did the Philistines Come From?

In his article, Daniel Master looks at archaeological and biblical evidence for the Philistines’ origins. He considers the accounts at Ramesses III’s mortuary temple at Medinet Habu. In the 12th century B.C.E., during the reign of Ramesses III, a confederation of tribes from the “islands” of the “northern countries” attacked Egypt—several times, both on sea and land. The Peleset, whom scholars connect with the Philistines, was named as one of these tribes.

Battle Ships. This drawing of a relief at Medinet Habu shows a sea battle between the Egyptians and people from the “islands,” who had invaded Egypt in the 12th century B.C.E. Photo: Public Domain.

On the way to Egypt, the confederation had traveled through the eastern Mediterranean and destroyed numerous cities, including Ugarit on the Syrian coast. Ammurapi, the last king of Ugarit, had written to surrounding kingdoms for help, when the “seven ships of the enemy” had arrived to ransack his kingdom. By the time help had come, though, it was too late: Ugarit lay in ruins.

Egypt defeated the confederation, as recorded on one of the temple walls at Medinet Habu. A relief from that temple also depicts a sea battle between the island tribes and the Egyptians. In it, the islanders wear distinct headdresses, which clearly set them apart from the Egyptians. After being defeated, some of these tribes settled on the southern coast of Canaan—in what would become the land of the Philistines. Egyptian sources, thus, seem to record a migration of people from the “islands” to Philistia.

Philistine Portrait? A confederation of island tribes, including the Peleset (Philistines), attacked Egypt in the 12th century B.C.E. This relief from Medinet Habu records a sea battle between the two forces. Photo: Olaf Tausch, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Master also examines the evidence for Philistine origins in the Bible. The biblical authors remembered the Philistines as coming from a foreign land, from “Caphtor” (Genesis 10:14; Deuteronomy 2:23; 1 Chronicles 1:12; Amos 9:7; Jeremiah 47:4). Scholars have long drawn a connection between Caphtor and Crete. This is largely based on Egyptian inscriptions and paintings of “Keftiu” from the 15th and 14th centuries B.C.E., wherein the Keftiu are linked to the Minoan civilization, which was centered on Crete.

Migration Map. Who were the Philistines, and where did they come from? New archaeological evidence suggests that many of the Philistines originally came from Crete, called “Caphtor” in the Bible. Map: © Biblical Archaeology Society.

Excavations have shown that the Philistines had a distinct assemblage of artifacts. Master notes parallels between some early Philistine objects, especially from the 12th and 11th centuries B.C.E., and Aegean and Cypriot artifacts. Elements of Philistine material culture, then, also hint at an Aegean or Mediterranean origin for the Philistines.

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New evidence from Ashkelon further supports this connection. The Leon Levy Expedition excavated at Ashkelon from 1985–2016 under the direction of the late Lawrence Stager at Harvard University; for the last decade, Daniel Master co-directed excavations. They found some infant burials from the 12th century B.C.E., as well as a Philistine cemetery with burials from the 11th through eighth centuries B.C.E. Teaming up with scientists at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, they were able to analyze DNA from seven of these individuals. When they looked at the 12th-century infants’ DNA, they discovered that the infants had some European ancestry. Crete proved to be one of the best matches for the infants’ heritage—when considering all of their genetic material. Yet other places in the western Mediterranean, such as Iberia, also provided a good match.

Interestingly, in the later individuals from Ashkelon’s cemetery, this European ancestry had been so diluted to barely register. Master explains that, by the tenth century B.C.E., enough intermarriage had taken place between the Philistines and the local Levantine population that the Philistines looked a lot like their neighbors:

While there was some evidence of the same Western European Hunter-Gatherer genetic input, for all statistical purposes, it could not be identified for certain. The best models showed that these people [the tenth- and ninth-century individuals buried in Ashkelon’s cemetery] were descendants of both the 12th-century inhabitants and the earlier Bronze Age inhabitants. It appears from these results that so much intermarriage had taken place between the original immigrants and the people around them that the genetic makeup of Ashkelon’s inhabitants had lost its immigrant distinctiveness.

Yet Master clarifies that, at this point in history, the Philistines still thought of themselves as distinct, as evident in a seventh-century inscription from the Philistine city of Ekron. The inscription names Ekron’s king as Ikausu, which means “Achaean” or “Greek.” The name Ikausu (or Achish) also appears in 1 Samuel 21:10 as Gath’s king.

The Philistines remembered their foreign origins

Master concludes that the new DNA evidence, coupled with the biblical and archaeological testimonies, suggests that the Philistines originated in Crete. That is not to say that the Philistines were a homogenous group, all coming from the Aegean world, but it seems that many Philistines did indeed migrate from there, bringing with them vestiges of Minoan culture. Learn more about this ancient people in Daniel M. Master’s article “Piece by Piece: Exploring the Origins of the Philistines,” published in the Spring 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

Subscribers: Read the full article “Piece by Piece: Exploring the Origins of the Philistines” by Daniel M. Master in the Spring 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

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This article first appeared in Bible History Daily on March 23, 2022.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

Illuminating the Philistines’ Origins

Who Were the Philistines?

The Philistines Are Coming!

The “Philistines” to the North

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

The Philistines

Piece by Piece: Exploring the Origins of the Philistines

What We Know About the Philistines

The Other “Philistines”

Exploring Philistine Origins on the Island of Cyprus

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The ivory scepter with the longest Linear A inscription known, found in Knossos. Courtesy A. Kanta et al.

Minoan Linear A is one of the most famous undeciphered scripts from the ancient world. In use from around 1800 to 1450 BCE, it continues to baffle researchers. However, a recent discovery, published in the series Ariadne Supplements, could move scholars just a little closer to finally unlocking its mysteries. The discovery in question? The longest-ever Linear A inscription, carved onto an ivory scepter found in the ancient city of Knossos.

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Recording the Minoan Cult

The scepter, alongside numerous other precious finds, was uncovered inside a semi-subterranean repository of a large, cultic building. The extremely fragile scepter, which was likely originally intended for display, is constructed of two separate pieces: a round ring and a handle, both of which are covered on all sides with writing. However, the writing on the ring is particularly intriguing. According to researchers, the writing, which features a staggering 119 signs preserved in whole or in part, formed one single inscription. This makes it by far the longest Linear A text ever discovered.

Although written in Linear A, the ring’s inscription is carved in a more refined style than other Linear A inscriptions, resembling the signs of Cretan hieroglyphs, which were also in use at the time. This style and the artistic refinement of the carving set the inscription apart, suggesting the object had a ceremonial use. On all four sides of the ring, the inscription is divided into smaller sections. Many of these sections include logographic symbols representing animals, vases, textiles, and hides. One side features a series of a dozen logographic quadrupeds. In contrast, another side includes ten different vases, eight of which have additional signs over them, likely representing the contents of the depicted vases. According to the team, the inscription probably recorded offerings or sacrifices meant to be used for a religious feast or ceremony.

The handle of the ivory scepter likewise included writing on all four of its sides, but in a different style and probably carved by a different scribe. This shorter inscription included more vases and animals, several sets of numbers, and a handful of Cretan hieroglyphs.

General map of the origins of various Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean scripts. Biblical Archaeology Society.

The scepter’s ring is carved from a single piece of elephant tusk and features two holes bored through it. Across from each is a small indentation carved into the ivory. Rods were likely placed into these holes to suspend an object that was made of some perishable material. The scepter is unique within the archaeological record. However, the team identified several depictions within contemporary seals that appear to show similar objects.

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Related reading in Bible History Daily

The Oldest Alphabetic Writing Ever Found?

Linear Elamite Deciphered!

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Deciphering Cretan Scripts

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Scrolls, Scripts and Stelae

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Fresco of a leaping Minoan Bull from the palace of Knossos. Courtesy Heraklion Archaeological Museum, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Archaeologists in western Crete have made a fascinating discovery, the skull of a sacrificed Minoan bull. The discovery was made in the cemetery complex associated with the palace of Petras, a site that was likely part of the main urban center for the region. Uncovered in one of the cemetery’s more than two dozen burial buildings, the skull is believed to have been part of a cultic ritual carried out by an elite family that owned the building.

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A Bull’s Skull and Minoan Ritual

Bulls played an important role within Minoan religion—as is possibly reflected in the ancient Greek myth of the Minotaur—and would have been an expensive sacrificial offering. The skull, which was dated by associated pottery to the mid-19th century BCE, is possibly the oldest example of such a ritual sacrifice found within a Minoan tomb. Along with the bull’s skull, the excavators uncovered several ceramic assemblages, oil lamps, and two triton shells, the latter also important symbols within Minoan religion. However, while other rooms contained human remains, no other bones, neither animal nor human, were found in the room with the bull’s skull.

“We do not know on what occasion this elite family sacrificed an extremely valuable animal. Perhaps it had been preceded by a strong earthquake or a pandemic or a dangerously fatal natural phenomenon such as a tsunami,” excavation director Metaxia Tsipopoulou told the Athens and Macedonia News Agency.

Because no other bones were present, the excavators believe the bull was likely sacrificed elsewhere. The lower jawbone of the skull was slightly broken, indicating that the bull’s tongue had been pulled out when it was butchered, which suggests the rest of the animal was used in a feast following the sacrifice. Further examination also indicated that the Minoan bull, which had probably been domesticated, was around five years old when it was sacrificed.

Although the burial complex at Petras is thought to have been used by several local communities, it belonged exclusively to the region’s elite population. Used between 2800 and 1750 BCE, the site was found largely undisturbed and, as a result, produced a large number of finds, including thousands of richly decorated ceramics, semi-precious stones, and gold, silver, and bronze vessels and beads. Interestingly, the majority of the site’s burials were secondary, indicating that the individuals were likely initially buried elsewhere, exhumed after bodily decomposition, and then transferred to the cemetery building.

Related reading in Bible History Daily:

Who Were the Minoans?

Minoan Frescoes at Tel Kabri

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Imagining the Minoans

Aegeans in Israel: Minoan Frescoes at Tel Kabri

Excavating Minoan Sites

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Large vessel with war chariots from Greece (c. 1350 B.C.E).
Credit: Peter Fischer, Teresa Bürge

Our modern world is defined by global trade and commerce, but such globalized economies were known in antiquity as well. New finds by the University of Gothenburg in Sweden have shown that Cyprus was an international trade hub for the ancient world. Recently excavated tombs in southwest Cyprus revealed more than 500 incredibly ornate grave goods which originated from across the ancient world. The tombs, which were made during the Late Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 B.C.E.) and found near the site of Dromolaxia Vizatzia, are thought to have belonged to the site’s wealthy elites. Examination of the grave goods has revealed that the site must have had trade connections across the ancient world, with items that originated from Egypt, Greece, Mesopotamia, India, and even the Baltic Sea.

Egyptian lotus jewelry of the same style worn by Nefertiti (c. 1350 B.C.E.).
Credit: Peter Fischer, Teresa Bürge

Although most of the grave goods were local in origin, many hint at the extensive trade network that passed through Cyprus. Among the finds were several Egyptian scarabs and pieces of jewelry of the same style worn by the famous Egyptian queen Nefertiti. The team also found a cylinder seal bearing an Akkadian inscription, which must have originated in Mesopotamia. The inscription includes the name of a Mesopotamian god along with the names of two kings, father and son, who are known to have ruled in Mesopotamia during the 18th century B.C.E. Archaeologists are still trying to determine how the seal ended up more than 600 miles away from its origin.

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Beyond these royal items, the team also found pottery imported from Greece and Crete, carnelian gemstones from India, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, and even amber from the Baltic Sea. Some of these objects would have traveled almost 3,000 miles before they were buried in Cyprus with their owners.

Gold tiara belonging to the skeleton of a five-year-old Credit: Peter Fischer, Teresa Bürge

In addition to being a gravesite, the tombs also likely served as a cultic space in which ritualized feasting took place to commemorate the dead. The tombs were first discovered in 2018 by the Swedish expedition, which uncovered the grave goods alongside the skeletal remains of 155 individuals. One individual, no more than five years old, was lavishly adorned in gold jewelry, including a necklace, earrings, and tiara. According to excavation director Peter Fischer, “The finds indicate that these are family tombs for the ruling elite in the city… This was probably a child of a powerful and wealthy family.” The next step will be DNA analysis of the human remains to determine if the deceased were related and if they were local or, like so many of the wonderful finds that were discovered with them, came to Cyprus from elsewhere.

Read more in BHD:

Brewing Bronze Age Beer

Paul’s First Missionary Journey through Perga and Pisidian Antioch

Medieval Latrine Preserves Crusaders’ Intestinal Parasites

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Sunday, May 31, 2020.

The Brilliance of Aegean Bronze Age Wall Paintings.

Emily Egan.

This event is sponsored by the Hellenic Society Prometheas

The arc of magnificent Aegean-style wall painting began in Minoan Crete during the Middle Bronze Age. This style of pictorial art then spread to other Aegean islands and to the Mycenaean mainland.

By the collapse of the Bronze Age at the end of the thirteenth century BCE, this Greek art form had reached its apex, especially demonstrated in the extraordinary development and novel uses of color. Notable in this development was the use of “abstract” or “artificial” color, in which artists decorated subjects with seemingly nonsensical hues that veered away from naturalism. Among the subjects of this bold coloration were flora and fauna, particularly sea life.

This presentation explores this use of colors with prominent examples of wall paintings from Knossos, Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos.

Emily Egan is Assistant Professor of Eastern Mediterranean Art and Archaeology at the University of Maryland.

This event will be held at Raaga Indian Restaurant: 5872 Leesburg Pike / Falls Church / Virginia / 22041

The luncheon begins at 2 pm; the lecture begins at 3 pm.

For more information about this lecture and other events sponsored by BASONOVA, visit their website.

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More from Bible History Daily:

Minoan Frescoes at Tel Kabri  Over 100 years of excavations on Crete have exposed elegant Minoan frescoes that once adorned the walls of the island’s Bronze Age palaces. This distinctively colorful Aegean art style flourished in the Middle Bronze Age (1750-1550 B.C.).

Bronze Age Akrotiri Reopened  The mid-second millennium B.C.E. volcanic eruption on the island of Thera (the modern tourist island Santorini) redefined Bronze Age history for the entire Aegean. One of the largest eruptions in the planet’s history, the blast not only destroyed the island’s highly artistic Minoan population at Akrotiri, but also had repercussions across the region.

Starting the Dig  In the July/August 2013 issue of BAR, Tel Kabri excavation directors Eric Cline and Assaf Yasur-Landau describe the unique Aegean-style art at the Middle Bronze Age site in Israel. BAS web editor Noah Wiener is currently taking part in the excavation at Tel Kabri.

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